Islam in the Soviet Union

This map shows the 1979 demographic distribution of Muslims within the Soviet Union as a percentage of the population by administrative division.

The Soviet Union was a state comprising fifteen communist republics which existed from 1922 until its dissolution into a series of separate nation states in 1991. Of these fifteen republics, six had a Muslim majority, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.[1] There was also a large Muslim presence in the Volga-Ural region and most of the population of North Caucasus of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic were Muslims and a large number of Tatar Muslims lived in Siberia and other regions.[1]

The Bolsheviks wanted to include as much as possible of the former Russian Empire within the Soviet Union. This meant they were faced with a number of contradictions as they set out to establish the Soviet Union in regions with strong Islamic influences.

Although actively encouraging atheism, Soviet authorities permitted limited religious activity in all the Muslim republics.[2] Mosques functioned in most large cities of the Central Asian republics and Azerbaijan; however, their number decreased from 25,000 in 1917 to 500 in the 1970s. In 1989, as part of the general relaxation of restrictions on religions, some additional Muslim religious associations were registered, and some of the mosques that had been closed by the government were returned to Muslim communities. The government also announced plans to permit training of limited numbers of Muslim religious leaders in courses of two- and five-year duration in Ufa and Baku, respectively.

In the late 1980s, Islam had the second largest number of believers in the Soviet Union, with between 45 and 50 million people identifying themselves as Muslims. But the Soviet Union had only about 500 working Islamic mosques, a fraction of the mosques in pre-revolutionary Russia, and Soviet law forbade Islamic religious activity outside working mosques and Islamic schools. All working mosques, religious schools, and Islamic publications were supervised by four "spiritual directorates" established by Soviet authorities to provide governmental control. The Spiritual Directorate for Central Asia and Kazakhstan, the Spiritual Directorate for the European Soviet Union and Siberia, and the Spiritual Directorate for the Northern Caucasus and Dagestan oversaw the religious life of Sunni Muslims. The Spiritual Directorate for Transcaucasia dealt with both Sunni and Shia Muslims. The overwhelming majority of the Muslims were Sunnis; only about 10 percent, most of whom lived in the Azerbaijan, were Shias.[3]

Lenin's rule

Unlike the Russian Orthodox Christian church, the Muslims of the Soviet Union originally encountered a larger degree of religious freedom under the new Bolshevik rule. Vladimir Lenin oversaw the return of religious artifacts, such as the Uthman Quran,[4] the foundations of court systems using principles of Islamic law which ran alongside the Communist legal system,[4] Jadids and other "Islamic socialists" were given positions of power,[4] an affirmative action system called "korenizatsiya" (nativisation) was implemented which helped the local Muslim populace,[4] while Friday, the Muslim Sabbath, was declared the legal day of rest throughout Central Asia.[4] Under the Tsars, Muslims were brutally repressed and the Eastern Orthodox Church was the official religion. On 24 November 1917 Lenin declared;

Muslims of Russia…all you whose mosques and prayer houses have been destroyed, whose beliefs and customs have been trampled upon by the tsars and oppressors of Russia: your beliefs and practices, your national and cultural institutions are forever free and inviolate. Know that your rights, like those of all the peoples of Russia, are under the mighty protection of the revolution.[4]

Basmachi Movement

See Basmachi movement

National Communism

Left-wing socialists in the Muslim areas of the former tsarist empire developed a distinct variant of communism that continued in the USSR until 1928. The Muslims believed the fate of world revolution depended on events in Asia not Europe. They also argued alliances with the national bourgeoisie were necessary for the duration of the liberation struggle. Class divisions had to be ignored, otherwise the national bourgeoisie would turn away from national liberation, ally with their imperial counterparts and thus ensure the ultimate collapse of any revolutionary struggle and national liberation.

Revolutionary activity along the Soviet Union's southern border, Soviet decision makers recognized, would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene. It was this understanding which prompted the Russian representation at the Baku Congress in September 1920 to reject the arguments of the National communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general, without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance. And it was this understanding, coupled with the Russian Bolsheviks' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own revolutionary empire, that galvanized them into action against the national communists.[5]

The great purge in the Muslim republics began in 1928 with executions of Veli Ibrahimov of the Tatar Communist Party and Milli Firka followed by the leaders of Hummet, Tatar Communist Party and even the Tatar Union of the Godless. It also happened in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and the Young Bukharians.

Stalin's rule

1972 documentary about the Soviets and Islam

When Joseph Stalin consolidated power in the second half of the 1920s, his religion policy changed. Mosques were closed or turned into warehouses throughout Central Asia. Religious leaders were persecuted, religious schools were closed down and Waqf's were outlawed.[6] The Soviet government took the paranji veil that the women wore (as part of the Islamic hijab interpretation of modesty) as evidence that the Muslim women were oppressed, and began the Hujum to try and forcibly remove it.[4][7] This backfired, and the veil became more popular than ever among the workers, whereas prior to this was mostly used by the middle, wealthier classes.[8] Stalin's cult of personality left virtually no place for any religious sentiment.[4][7]

Ethnic cleansing

During World War II, particularly in 1943-44, the Soviet government conducted a series of deportations to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. Treasonous collaboration with the invading Germans and anti-Soviet rebellion were the official reasons for these deportations. Six of the seven (non-Slavic) nationalities of the Crimea and the northern Caucasus that were deported, Crimean Tatars,[9] Chechens,[10] Ingushs, Balkars, Karachays, and Meskhetian Turks, were predominantly Muslim.[11]

Severe incidental losses of life were incurred during and after these deportations. The mass deportation of Crimean Tatar Muslims began on 17 May 1944 in all Crimean inhabited localities. More than 32,000 NKVD troops participated in deportation of 193,865 Crimean Tatars were deported, 151,136 of them to Uzbek SSR, 8,597 to Mari ASSR, 4,286 to Kazakh SSR, the rest 29,846 to the various oblasts of RSFSR. According to NKVD data, nearly 20% died in exile during the following year and a half. Crimean Tatar activists have reported this figure to be nearly 46%.[12][13] (See Deportation of Crimean Tatars.)

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Hannah, Abdul. "Chapter 1." Early History of Spread of Islam in (former) Soviet Union. 16 Sep 2002. Witness Pioneer. 14 Feb 2007
  2. ↑ "Soviet Union - POLICY TOWARD NATIONALITIES AND RELIGIONS IN PRACTICE". Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  3. ↑ "Soviet Union - Muslim". Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Crouch, Dave. "The Bolsheviks and Islam." International Socialism: A quarterly journal of socialist theory. 110. 14 Feb 2007.
  5. ↑ Alexandre A. Bennigsen (15 September 1980). Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World. University of Chicago Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-226-04236-7. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  6. ↑ Helene Carrere d’Encausse, The National Republics Lose Their Independence, in Edward A. Allworth, (edit), Central Asia: One Hundred Thirty Years of Russian Dominance, A Historical Overview, Duke University Press, 1994.
  7. 1 2 Kowalsky, Sharon A. Book Review: Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia. by Douglas Northrop Journal of World History: Vol. 26, No. 2, June 2005.
  8. ↑ Douglas Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia, Cornell University Press, 2004.
  9. ↑ Deportation of Crimean Tatars by Stalin
  10. ↑ "Remembering Stalin's deportations". 23 February 2004. Retrieved 25 August 2016 – via bbc.co.uk.
  11. ↑ Robert Conquest, The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (London: Macmillan, 1970); S. Enders Wimbush and Ronald Wixman. 1975. "The Meskhetian Turks: A New Voice in Central Asia." Canadian Slavonic Papers 17 (Summer and Fall): 320-340; and Omer Bin Abdullah. Muslims of Chechnya continue their lonesome struggle for freedom, keeping Russian might in a bear trap. Islam Online. 03/02/2001
  12. ↑ "World War II -- 60 Years After: For Victims Of Stalin's Deportations, War Lives On". Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  13. ↑ "Crimean Tatars mark wartime deportations". 18 May 2002. Retrieved 25 August 2016 – via bbc.co.uk.

 This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.

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