International adoption of South Korean children
South Korea color-coded by amount
where the darker color means more[4] South Korea's Five Year Plan
for Adoption and Foster Care[3]
The international adoption of South Korean children is a recent historical process triggered initially by casualties of the Korean War after 1953. The initiative was taken by religious organizations in the United States, Australia, and many European nations, and eventually developed into various apparatus that sustained adoption as a socially integrated system.
Korean War and Holt
The start of adoption in South Korea is usually credited to Harry Holt in 1955.[5][6] He wanted to help the children of South Korea and so adopted 8 children from South Korea and brought them home. He then created Holt International Children's Services in 1955. Holt created the system since before that point overseas adoption was not common in Korea.[6]
International adoption of South Korean children started after the Korean War which lasted from 1950 to 1953. When the war was over, many children were left orphaned. In addition a large number of mixed race ‘G.I babies’ (offspring of U.S. and other western soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country’s orphanages.
Touched by the fate of the orphans, Western religious groups as well as other associations started the process of placing children in homes in the United States and Europe. Adoption from South Korea began in 1955 when Bertha and Harry Holt went to Korea and adopted eight war orphans (Rotschild, The Progressive, 1988) after passing a law through Congress. Their work resulted in the founding of Holt International Children's Services. The first Korean babies sent to Europe went to Sweden via the Social Welfare Society in the mid-1960s. By the end of that decade, the Holt International Children's Services began sending Korean orphans to Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland and Germany.
For the next decade, most of the children adopted from Korea were fathered by American soldiers who served in the Korean war. But American Asians presently account for fewer than 1% of adoptees. Foreign adoptions serve many purposes for the government (Rothschild, The Progressive, 1988).
South Korea, then, formulated the Ministry of Social Affairs for overseas adoption.
The first wave of adopted people from Korea came from usually mixed-race children whose families lived in poverty; the children's parents were often American military men and Korean women.[6]
In the 1970s and 1980s, the reasons for adoption shifted. Industrialization and urbanization brought about more teen pregnancy and increased divorce rates. The centralization also led to the poverty of many rural areas, which was a contributing factor to adoption. Also, it brought about more children who were born out of wedlock. This brought about higher abandonment rates.
Korea's domestic adoptions
A 2015 article, said that the South Korean government is trying to have more domestic adoptions due, in part, to people around the world becoming aware of the large number of Korean adoptees who were adopted by families outside of South Korea since the mid 1950's. Because the South Korean government doesn't want to have the reputation of a "baby-exporting country", and, due to the belief that Koreans should be raised with Korean culture, the South Korean government has been trying to increase domestic adoptions.[7] However, this has been less than successful over the decades. The numbers only picked up after 2007.[8]
However, the numbers of domestic adoption fell in 2013 due to tighter restrictions on eligibility for Adoptive Parents. However, the number in babies has also gone up with the forced registration of babies, also a new law, leading to more abandonment.[9]
The primary reason as of 2015 for the majority of surrenders within South Korea is single mothers are still publicly shamed within Korea,[10][11] and the South Korean mothers who give their kids up for adoption have been mostly middle or working class women since the 1990s.[4] The amount of money single mothers can receive within the country is 70,000 won per month, only after proving poverty versus the tax break from adopting domestically is 150,000 won per month, which is unconditional, whereas it's conditional in the case of single mothers.[10] 33 facilities for single and divorced mothers, but the majority of them are run by orphanages and adoption agencies.
In a 2009 article, Stephen C. Morrison, a Korean adoptee, said that he wanted more Koreans to be willing to adopt Korean children. Morrison said that he felt the practice of Koreans adopting Korean children in secret was the greatest obstacle for Korean acceptance of domestic adoption. Morrison also said that in order for domestic Korean adoption to be accepted by Koreans he felt that Korean people's attitudes must change, so that Koreans show respect for Korean adoptees, not speak of Korean adoptees as "exported items" and not refer to Korean adoptees using unpleasant expressions of which Morrison gave the example, "a thing picked up from under a bridge". Morrison said that he felt that the South Korean government should raise the allowable age at which Korean parents could adopt Korean orphans and raise the allowable age at which Korean orphans could be adopted by Korean parents, since both of these changes would allow for more domestic adoptions.[12]
Even in its capacity as a global economy and OECD nation, Korea still sends children abroad for international adoption. The proportion of children leaving Korea for adoption amounted to about 1% of its live births for several years during the 1980s (Kane, 1993); currently, even with a large drop in the Korean birth rate to below 1.2 children per woman and an increasingly wealthy economy, about 0.5% (1 in 200) of Korean children are still sent to other countries every year.
To stem the number of overseas adoptions, the South Korean government introduced a quota system for foreign adoptions in 1987. And under the system, the nation reduced the number of children permitted for overseas adoption by 3 to 5% each year, from about 8,000 in 1987 to 2,057 in 1997. The goal of the plan was to totally eliminate foreign adoptions by 2015. But in 1998 the government temporarily lifted the restrictions, after the number of abandoned children sharply increased in the wake of growing economic hardships.[13] Notable is a focused effort of the 2009 South Korean government to seize international adoption out of South Korea (with the establishment of KCare and the domestic Adoption Promotion Law.
A 1997 news article said that South Korea was giving incentives in the form of housing, medical and educational subsidies to Korean couples who adopted Korean orphans to help encourage domestic adoption, but the Korean couples in South Korea who did adopt tended to not use these subsidies, because they did not want other Koreans knowing that their children were not their biological children.[14]
A 2005 news article said that South Korean actress Shin Ae-ra and South Korean actor Cha In-Pyo publicly adopted a Korean daughter after already having a biological son together, and the news article said that by publicly adopting a Korean orphan this the couple could cause other Koreans to change their views about domestic adoptions in South Korea.[15]
Revised Special Adoption Act
The Revised Special Adoption Act which was enacted in South Korea in 2012 made domestic adoptions in South Korea recorded as the biological children of the Korean adoptive parents,[16] but this did not make adopting Korean children equal to adding a blood relative in the minds of Koreans regardless of how domestic Korean adoptions would now be considered for legal purposes.[17]
Media coverage of adoption
South Korean media coverage
In 1988, when South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics, the international adoption of South Korean children became the focus of global attention, and the issue became a source of national humiliation for South Korea. Politicians claimed that they would try to stop "child exports", so they set an intended end date and a quota for international adoptions. However, the quota has been exceeded several times, and the intended end date has been extended several times.[1]
Not until the 1980s and early 1990s did the South Korean government and South Koreans, both in South Korea and in the diaspora, pay any significant attention to the fates of Korean adoptees. The nation was not prepared for the return of their 'lost children.' But the numerous adult Korean adoptees who visited Korea as tourists every year, in addition to raised public awareness of the Korean adoptee diaspora, forced Korea to face a shameful and largely unknown part of their history. South Korean president Kim Dae-jung invited 29 adult Korean adoptees from 8 countries to a personal meeting in the Blue House in October 1998. During this meeting he publicly apologized for South Korea's inability to raise them.[18]
Since then, South Korean media rather frequently reports on the issues regarding international adoption. Most Korean adoptees have taken on the citizenship of their adoptive country and no longer have Korean passports. Earlier they had to get a visa like any other foreigner if they wanted to visit or live in South Korea. This only added to the feeling that they were 'not really South Korean'. In May 1999, a group of Korean adoptees living in Korea started a signature-collection in order to achieve legal recognition and acceptance (Schuhmacher, 1999). At present (2009) the number of Korean adoptees long term residents in South Korea (mainly Seoul) is estimated at approximately 500. It is not unlikely that this number will increase in the following decade (International adoption from South Korea peaked in the mid-1980s). A report from Global Overseas Adoptees' Link (G.O.A.'L) indicates that the long term returnees (more than one year) are predominantly in their early twenties or early thirties.
One factor that helped make the subject of Korean adoptees part of the South Korean discourse was a 1991 film called Susanne Brink's Arirang which was a film about the life story of a Korean adoptee who grew up in Sweden. This film made the subject of the international adoptions of Korean children a hot topic in South Korea, and it made South Koreans feel shame and guilt regarding the issue.[1]
A 1997 news article said that Koreans in South Korea often believed that adoptive families in other countries had ulterior motives for adopting Korean orphans due to the Korean belief that parents can not love a child who is not their biological child, and the 1997 news article said that South Korean news reports speculated that adoptive families in other countries adopt Korean orphans for the ulterior motive of turning them into domestic servants.[14]
North Korean media coverage
A 1988 news article said that the director general of South Korea's Bureau of Family Affairs in the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs said that the large number of international adoptions out of South Korea had been an issue used as part of North Korea's propaganda against South Korea in the 1970's. As part of North Korea's propaganda against South Korea in the 1970's, North Korea decried the large numbers of international adoptions of South Korean children, and North Korea decried what it considered to be South Korea's practice of selling South Korean children. The South Korean director general wanted to decrease the numbers of South Korean children being adopted internationally, so North Korea would no longer have the issue to use for its propaganda against South Korea. The 1988 news article said that North Korea did not allow couples in other countries to adopt North Korean children.[19]
The Pyongyang Times, a North Korean newspaper, printed: "The traitors of South Korea, old hands at treacheries, are selling thousands, tens of thousands of children going ragged and hungry to foreign marauders under the name of 'adopted children'."[20]
A magazine article in The Progressive, an American magazine, detailed the international adoption of South Korean children coinciding with the 1988 Summer Olympics in South Korea. This magazine article was serialized by The People's Korea, a pro-North Korea magazine, and the resulting publicity caused South Korea to have the image as the number one child-exporting country of the world.[20]
Adoptees returning to South Korea
Adoptees returning to visit South Korea
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, most of the adult Korean adoptees felt that younger Korean adoptees should visit South Korea, 57% of the 167 adult Korean adoptees reported that they have visited South Korea and 38% of the 167 adult Korean adoptees reported visiting South Korea as a means with which they explored their Korean heritage.[21]
Adoptees returning to live in South Korea
When International Korean Adoptees turned into adults, many of them chose to return.[22] These countries include Sweden, United States of America, The Netherlands, France, Belgium etc. In this respect the so-called re-Koreanization of the Korean adoptees is often reproduced in South Korean popular media (e.g. the blockbuster 'Kuk'ka Taep'yo/National Representative/Take Off). The 're-Koreanization can be reflected in Korean ethnic based nationalism (both North and South of the 38th parallel).
In 2005, an increasing number adoptees were moving back to live in South Korea to try to help other Korean adoptees, and many of these returning Korean adoptees were critical of South Korea's adoption system. For example, one returning Korean adoptee made a confrontational exhibition where he posted photos of 3,000 Korean adoptees in South Korea's three largest cities with the hope that South Koreans would see these photos and question why South Korea was still sending many Korean children abroad as adoptees. Another returning Korean adoptee created an organization based in South Korea called Adoptee Solidarity Korea to end the international adoption of South Korean orphans. Adoptee Solidarity Korea intended to accomplish this goal by "preventing teenage pregnancy through sex education, monitoring orphanages and foster care, increasing domestic adoption and expanding welfare programs for single mothers." Other Korean adoptees who returned to live in South Korea did volunteer work in orphanages.[23]
Korean adoptees who return to live in South Korea choose to use a Korean name, their adopted name or a combination of both while living in South Korea. One returning adoptee said that they chose to use a combination of both names to indicate their status as a Korean adoptee. Another returning Korean adoptee chose to use a Korean name, but the name they decided to go by was one that they chose for themselves and not the Korean name which was originally assigned to them by their orphanage when they were an orphan. Another returning Korean adoptee decided to go by their original Korean name over their adopted Belgian name, because their Belgian name was difficult for other people to pronounce.[23]
Korean adoptees who return to live in South Korea from the United States generally hold higher paying jobs in South Korea that involve speaking English and teaching while Korean adoptees who return to live in South Korea from European countries that use other languages generally get involved with lower paying jobs in restaurants, bars and stores while living in South Korea.[23]
In 2010 the South Korean Government legalized dual citizenship for Korean adoptees, and this law that went into effect in 2011.[2]
Adoptees deported back to South Korea
A 2016 news article said that the South Korean government had record of 10 Korean adoptees who were deported from the United States back to South Korea.[24]
Korean patrilineal blood culture
According to a 1988 news article, South Korean culture is a patrilineal culture that places importance on families related by blood. The importance of bloodline families is the reason why Koreans do not want to adopt Korean orphans, because the Korean adoptee would not be the blood relative of the adoptive parents. Korean patrilineal culture is the reason Korean society stigmatizes and discriminates against unwed Korean mothers and their kids, making it so the unwed mother might not be able to get a job or get a husband.[19]
A 2014 news article said that unwed mothers suffer a social stigma in South Korea, because having a child out of wedlock is an act that goes against Korean patrilineal bloodline culture. The 2014 news article also said that Korean adoptees suffer a social stigma in South Korea, because Korean adoptees have been "cut loose from their bloodlines".[17]
A 2015 news article said that there is still a strong social stigma against unwed mothers and illegitimate children in South Korea. The 2015 news article said that this social stigma applies to the unwed mother and even her illegitimate children and her whole extended family, causing a child who was born out of wedlock to suffer lowered marital, job and educational prospects in South Korea.[25]
In Korean patrilineal blood culture, Koreanness is passed from parent to child as long as the parents have "pure" Korean blood, and this transference of Koreanness is especially notable when the Korean father gives his "pure" Korean blood to his Korean child, making lineage along the father's line especially important in the Korean concept of race and identity. A Korean family's lineage history represents the official recording of their blood purity. Due to this conception of identity along blood lines and race, Koreans in South Korea consider Korean adoptees who return to South Korea to still be Korean even if they can not speak Korean. For Koreans, a Korean physical appearance is the most important consideration when identifying other people as being Koreans, although a Korean physical appearance is not the only consideration Koreans use in their consideration for group membership as a fellow Korean. For example, Korean women who had sex with non-Korean men were often not considered to be "Korean" in the "full-fledged" sense by Koreans.[26]
A 2015 article said that Koreans in South Korea mostly adopt female Korean children to avoid issues involving ancestral family rites which are usually done by bloodline sons and to avoid issues involving inheritance.[27]
Economics
Costs saved by South Korea
A 1988 news article said that the South Korean government made fifteen to twenty million dollars per year by the adoption of Korean orphans by families in other countries. The 1988 news article also said that the adoption of Korean orphans out of South Korea had three more effects: it saved the South Korean government the costs of caring for the Korean orphans, it relieved the South Korean government of the need to figure out what to do with the orphans and it lowered the population.[19]
Some academics and researchers claim that Korean adoption agencies have established a system to guarantee a steady supply of healthy children (Dobbs 2009). Supporters of this system claim that adoption agencies are only caring for infants who would otherwise go homeless or be institutionalized. While their motives can not be easily determined, their methods are efficient and well-established.
Korean adoption agencies support pregnant-women's homes; three of the four agencies run their own. One of the agencies has its own maternity hospital and does its own delivery. All four provide and subsidize child care. All pay foster mothers about $80 a month to care for the infants, and the agencies provide all food, clothing and other supplies free of charge. They also support orphanages, or operate them themselves. Along with advice from 'counselors' at the agencies, this system not only makes the process of giving up a child easier, it encourages it.
When the time for departure arrives, the babies are flown to their foreign families. Payments are routine to maternity hospitals, midwives, obstetricians and officials at each of the four agencies acknowledged. The agencies will cover the costs of delivery and the medical care for any woman who gives up her baby for adoption. The agencies also use their influence with hospitals, the police, and with maternity homes to acquire children (Rothschild, The Progressive, 1988; Schwekendiek, 2012).
Social welfare of South Korea
In a 2010 book, Kim Rasmussen said that the "root cause" of the number of adoptions out of South Korea in 2010 was South Korea's lack of spending on its social welfare system. Rasmussen said that the other OECD-30 countries spent an average of 20.6% of their GDP on social welfare benefits while South Korea only spent 6.9% of its GDP on social welfare benefits. Rasmussen said that South Korea promoting domestic adoption would not address the heart of the problem and that South Korea should raise its spending for social welfare benefits.[28]
Birth mothers and orphans
Birth mothers
In a 1988 news article, a South Korean orphanage director said that according to his orphanage's questionnaire data 90% of Korean birth mothers indicated that wanted to keep their biological child and not give it up for adoption, but the South Korean orphanage director said that only maybe 10% of birth mothers eventually decided to keep their biological child after his orphanage suggested to the birth mothers that unwed mothers and poor couples should give their child up for adoption. The 1988 news article said that the Korean birth mothers felt guilty after giving their child up for adoption, and it said that most of the Korean birth mothers who gave their child up for adoption were poor and worked at factory or clerical jobs in South Korea.[19]
In a 1988 news article, the INS officer at the Embassy of the United States, Seoul, said that social workers were hired by adoption agencies to perform the role of "heavies" to convince South Korean mothers to give their children up for adoption. Although the INS officer said that he felt that the adoption business was probably a good thing for birth mothers, adoptive parents and adoptees, he said that the adoption business troubled him due to the large number of children who were being adopted out of South Korea every month. The INS officer said that these numbers should make people question how much of the international adoption of South Korean children was a humanitarian cause and how much it was a business.[19]
Orphans
A 2015 article said that the majority of South Korean orphans become orphans at a young age, and the 2015 article said that the majority of South Korean orphans eventually age out of the orphanages' care when they turn 18 years old never being adopted.[7]
A different 2015 article said that in the past 60 years two million or about 85% of the total orphans in South Korea have grown up in South Korean orphanages never being adopted. The 2015 article said that from the 1950's to 2015 only 4% of the total number of orphans in South Korea had been adopted domestically by other Koreans in South Korea.[27]
A 2014 news article said that it was "effectively" "impossible" for Korean orphans who aged out of institutions at 18 years old to attend a university in South Korea due to lacking the money to pay for all of the associated costs, so most Korean orphans ended up getting low-paying jobs in South Korean factories after aging out of the institutions. The 2014 news article said that many Korean parents in South Korea refuse to allow their children to marry Korean orphans.[17]
A 2015 video by BBC News said that orphanages in South Korea had become full as a result of the South Korean government making it more difficult for Korean orphans to be adopted overseas.[29]
Psychological effects
Social problems
A 2002 study of intercountry adoptees in Sweden of various ethnic backgrounds, most of whom were of Korean, Colombian or Indian (from India) extraction, who were adopted by two parents who were born in Sweden found that intercountry adoptees had the following increased likelihoods relative to the rest of the children who were born in Sweden to two parents who were themselves also born in Sweden: intercountry adoptees were 3.6% more likely to die from suicide, 3.6% more likely to attempt suicide, 3.2% more likely to be admitted for a psychological disorder, 5.2% more likely to abuse drugs, 2.6% more likely to abuse alcohol and 1.6% more likely to commit a crime.[30]
Abandonment
In 2006, an increasing number of South Korean parents were paying elderly American couples to adopt their children for the purpose of having their child receive US education and US citizenship. However, Korean children who were put up for adoption for the purpose of receiving US education and US citizenship often felt betrayed by their biological parents. Getting US citizenship this way required the adopted child to be adopted before their sixteenth birthday and stay with their adopted family for at least two years.[31]
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, the majority of the adult Korean adoptees struggled with the thought of how their birth mother could have given them up for adoption.[21]
Korean culture socialization
A 2012 study of Korean adoptees in the United States found that white parents of Korean adoptees whose average age was 17.8 years old tended to try to socialize their adopted Korean children to Korean culture by doing overt actions such as going to Korean restaurants or having them attend Korean culture camp rather than having conversations with them about Korean ethnic identity or being a racial minority in the United States. The study said that for many families doing these overt actions was easier and more comfortable for them than discussing the personal issues of ethnic identity or being a racial minority in the United States.[32]
In a 2005 article, a 38-year-old Korean adoptee who was adopted in the United States said that social workers told her adoptive parents to not raise her with ties to South Korea, because the social workers said that doing that would confuse her. The 2005 article said that adoptive parents were no longer trying to cut ties with the culture of their adopted kid's birth country as of 2005, and adoptive parents were instead trying to introduce their adopted kid to the culture of their birth country. In 2005, one popular way for adoptive parents to expose their adopted kid to the traditions and food of their birth country was for them to attend "culture camps" which would last for one day.[33]
Cross-race effect
A 2005 study of the cross-race effect used Korean adoptees whose average age was 27.8 years old who were adopted when they were between 3 and 9 years old by European Caucasians in France and the study also used recent Korean immigrants to France. The study had the participants briefly see a photograph of a Caucasian or Japanese face, then the participants had to try to recognize the same Caucasian or Japanese face which they had just seen from a pair of either Caucasian or Japanese faces. The Korean adoptees and French people could recognize the Caucasian faces better than they could recognize the Japanese faces, but the recent Korean immigrants could recognize the Japanese faces better than they could recognize the Caucasian faces, suggesting that the cross-race effect can be modified based on familiarity with certain types of faces due to experiences starting after three years of age.[34]
Implicitly raised as white
C.N. Le who is a lecturer at the sociology department at the University of Massachusetts Amherst[35] said that Korean adoptees and non-white adoptees in general who are raised by white families are raised to implicitly think that they are white, but since they are not white, there is a disconnect between the way they are socialized at home and the way the rest of society sees them. Le further said that most white families of non-white adoptees are not comfortable talking with their adopted children about the issues that racial minorities face in the United States, and Le further advised white families who adopt transracially that just introducing their kids to Asian culture, telling them that race is not important and/or telling them that people should get equal treatment in society is insufficient. Le said that the social disconnection between how they were raised and the reality of society causes "confusion, resentment about their situation, and anger" for adoptees who were transracially adopted by white families.[36]
Many of the South Korean children adopted internationally, grew up in white, upper or middle-class homes. In the beginning adoptive families were often told by agencies and social workers to assimilate their children and make them as much as possible a part of the new culture, thinking that this would override concerns about ethnic identity and origin. Many Korean adoptees grew up not knowing about other children like themselves.[37] This has changed in recent years with social services now encouraging parents and using home studies to encourage prospective adoptive parents to learn about the cultural influences of the country. With such works as "Beyond Culture Camp" [38] which encourage the teaching of culture, there has been a large shift. Though, these materials may be given, not everyone may take advantage of them. Also, adoption agencies started to allow the adoption of South Koreans by people of color in the late 1990s to early 2000, and not just white people, including Korean-Americans. Such an example of this is the rapper GOWE, who is a Korean adopted into a Chinese family.
As a result of many internationally-adopted Korean adoptees growing up in white areas, many of these adoptees avoided other Asians in childhood and adolescence out of an unfamiliarity and/or discomfort with Asian cultures.[39] These s sometimes express a desire to be white like their families and peers, and strongly identify with white society. As a result, meeting South Koreans and Korean culture might have been a traumatic experience for some.[37] However, other Korean adoptees, often those raised in racially or culturally diverse communities, grew up with ties to the Korean community and identify more strongly with the Korean aspect of their identities.[39]
Discriminated against due to being adopted
A 2014 news article said that Koreans in South Korea were prejudiced against Korean adoptees, and the 2014 news article said that Korean adoptees who were adopted domestically by other Koreans in South Korea often became outcasted and bullied by other Koreans at their South Korean school.[17]
Discriminated against due to their race and appearance
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, the majority of respondents (70%) reported their race being the reason they were discriminated against while growing up, and a minority of respondents (28%) reported their adoptee status as being the reason they were discriminated against while growing up. One of the study's respondents said that growing up in a small town of white people made him an oddity that few people wanted to associated with, and he said that he had wanted to be like other people instead of being different. Other respondents said that the discrimination they received growing up caused them to deny their Korean heritage.[21]
In a 2010 book, Kim Rasmussen gave an example of a Korean adoptee from the United States who returned to South Korea and tried to apply for the job of an English teacher in South Korea only to be denied the job due to her race. The Korean adoptee was told that she was rejected for the job, because the mothers of the students wanted their children to be taught English from a white person.[28]
Discriminated against due to not speaking Korean
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, the majority of respondents (72%) reported that they had no ability with the Korean language, and only a minority of respondents (25%) reported that they had any ability with the Korean language. Of the study's respondents who visited South Korea, 22% described their visit as a negative experience, and about 20% described their visit as a both negative and positive experience. Inability to speak Korean was mentioned as being a cause of their visit being a negative experience by more than one respondent, and inability to speak Korean was generally the cause of the negative parts of the visit for the respondents who reported both a positive and negative experience. One respondent said that they felt that Koreans in South Korea looked down on them for their inability to speak Korean. Another respondent said that the Koreans in South Korea were initially nice to them, but the respondent said that Koreans in South Korea became rude to them after finding out that they could not speak Korean. Many of the adoptees felt like they were foreigners while visiting South Korea.[21]
Adoptees' feelings about South Korea
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, group discussions about the topic of how they felt about South Korea led to many feelings. There was anger about the negative way Koreans view adopted Koreans. There was concern over Korean orphans in South Korean orphanages, and there was a feeling of obligation to help the Korean orphans who remained in the South Korean orphanages. There was a feeling of responsibility to change Koreans' views of domestic adoption, so that adopting an orphan in South Korea would not be something that Koreans in South Korea would be ashamed of doing.[21]
Adoptees' memories of orphanages and initial adoption
In a 1999 study of 167 adult Korean adoptees, there were adoptees who mainly remembered experiencing poverty as orphans such as one adoptee who remembered eating lots of oatmeal that had flies in it as an orphan in South Korea. Some adoptees remembered feeling a sense of loss of the relationships that they had with people when they left their South Korean orphanages. Some of the adoptees remembered being scared of their new living situation with adoptive parents in a new country when they had just been adopted out of South Korea.[21]
Countries adopting Koreans
Adoptees in the United States
In 2011, US couples who wanted to adopt Korean children needed to meet certain requirements. The couples needed to be between 25 and 44 years old with an age difference between spouses of no more than 15 years. The couples needed to be married for three years. The couples needed to have an income higher than the US national average. The couples could not already have more than five children. In 2011, US couples had to pay a fee between $9,500 and $10,000 to adopt a Korean child, and it took one to four years after applying for the adopted Korean child to arrive in the United States. The wait time after applying for US couples who wanted to adopt was about three years for a healthy Korean child and one year for a Korean child with special needs.[40]
A 1988 news article said that there were 2,000,000 couples who wanted to adopt children in the United States, but only 20,000 healthy children were available for domestic adoption in the United States. The 1988 news article said that the lack of children for domestic adoption caused couples in the United States to look to other countries to adopt children, and the fastest increase of American couples' adoptions from other countries at this time was from South Korea.[19]
Korean adoptees comprise about ten percent of the total Korean American population according to an estimate in a 2010 book about South Korean adoption. In the United States, the majority of Korean adoptees were adopted close to adoption agencies, so they were mostly adopted in the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, Michigan, Montana, South Dakota, Oregon, Washington, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Vermont, Utah or Idaho.[4]
Adoptees in Sweden
Due to the Swedish welfare state of the 1960s more Swedish families started adopting Korean children. The Swedish welfare system allowed for unwed Swedish mothers to better support themselves and not feel the need to give up their children for adoption. As a consequence, there were fewer Swedish orphans in Sweden for domestic adoptions, so Swedish families who wanted to adopt children had to adopt from other countries. The reason for Korean adoptions, specifically, was that some Swedish families had already adopted Koreans in the 1950's, so later families continued this trend.[41]
Statistics
| Racial Mix of 6,293 Adoptees From South Korea to the United States From 1955 to 1966 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Racial Mix of Adoptee | Percent | ||||||||
| White & Korean Mixed Adoptee | 46% | ||||||||
| Full Korean Adoptee | 41% | ||||||||
| African American & Korean Mixed Adoptee | 13% | ||||||||
| Reasons Koreans do not Want to Adopt in South Korea | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reason Given | Percent | ||||||||
| difficulty raising and loving adopted child like a birth child | 32.1% | ||||||||
| families should be based on blood | 29.5% | ||||||||
| financial burden | 11.9% | ||||||||
| prejudice against adoption | 11.4% | ||||||||
| Receiving Australian Territories of South Korean Adoptees From 2001 to 2009 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Receiving State/Territory | 2001-2002 | 2002-2003 | 2003-2004 | 2004-2005 | 2005-2006 | 2006-2007 | 2007-2008 | 2008-2009 | Total |
| Australian Capital Territory | 4 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 23 |
| New South Wales | 25 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 18 | 16 | 7 | 14 | 161 |
| Northern Territory | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 14 |
| Queensland | 15 | 16 | 18 | 19 | 15 | 9 | 9 | 7 | 108 |
| South Australia | 20 | 24 | 19 | 12 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 93 |
| Tasmania | 1 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 17 |
| Victoria | 12 | 20 | 20 | 23 | 16 | 10 | 12 | 8 | 121 |
| Western Australia | 12 | 10 | 14 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 62 |
| Total | 92 | 108 | 108 | 99 | 69 | 48 | 40 | 35 | 599 |
| Receiving Countries of South Korean Adoptees From 1953 to 2008 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary Countries (1953-2008) | Other Countries (1960-1995) | |||||
| Country | Period | Adoptees | Country | Period | Adoptees | |
| United States | 1953-2008 | 109,242 | New Zealand | 1964-1984 | 559 | |
| France | 1968-2008 | 11,165 | Japan | 1962-1982 | 226 | |
| Sweden | 1957-2005 | 9,051 | Okinawa | 1970-1972 | 94 | |
| Denmark | 1965-2008 | 9,297 | Ireland | 1968-1975 | 12 | |
| Norway | 1955-2008 | 6,295 | Poland | 1970 | 7 | |
| Netherlands | 1969-2003 | 4,099 | Spain | 1968 | 5 | |
| Belgium | 1969-1995 | 3,697 | China | 1967-1968 | 4 | |
| Australia | 1969-2008 | 3,359 | Guam | 1971-1972 | 3 | |
| Germany | 1965-1996 | 2,352 | India | 1960-1964 | 3 | |
| Canada | 1967-2008 | 2,181 | Paraguay | 1969 | 2 | |
| Switzerland | 1968-1997 | 1,111 | Ethiopia | 1961 | 1 | |
| Luxembourg | 1984-2008 | 561 | Finland | 1984 | 1 | |
| Italy | 1965-2008 | 383 | Hong Kong | 1973 | 1 | |
| England | 1958-1981 | 72 | Tunisia | 1969 | 1 | |
| Turkey | 1969 | 1 | ||||
| Other | 1956-1995 | 113 | ||||
South Korean Ministry for Health, Welfare and Family Affairs (2009)[4] | ||||||
| Intercountry Adoptions Out of South Korea From 1953 to 2008 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Total | Year | Total | Year | Total | Year | Total | Year | Total | Year | Total | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1960 | 638 | 1970 | 1,932 | 1980 | 4,144 | 1990 | 2,962 | 2000 | 2,360 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1961 | 660 | 1971 | 2,725 | 1981 | 4,628 | 1991 | 2,197 | 2001 | 2,436 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1962 | 254 | 1972 | 3,490 | 1982 | 6,434 | 1992 | 2,045 | 2002 | 2,365 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1953 | 4 | 1963 | 442 | 1973 | 4,688 | 1983 | 7,263 | 1993 | 2,290 | 2003 | 2,287 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1954 | 8 | 1964 | 462 | 1974 | 5,302 | 1984 | 7,924 | 1994 | 2,262 | 2004 | 2,258 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1955 | 59 | 1965 | 451 | 1975 | 5,077 | 1985 | 8,837 | 1995 | 2,180 | 2005 | 2,010 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1956 | 671 | 1966 | 494 | 1976 | 6,597 | 1986 | 8,680 | 1996 | 2,080 | 2006 | 1,899 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1957 | 486 | 1967 | 626 | 1977 | 6,159 | 1987 | 7,947 | 1997 | 2,057 | 2007 | 1,264 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1958 | 930 | 1968 | 949 | 1978 | 5,917 | 1988 | 6,463 | 1998 | 2,443 | 2008 | 1,250 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1959 | 741 | 1969 | 1,190 | 1979 | 4,148 | 1989 | 4,191 | 1999 | 2,409 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Total 2,899 | Total 6,166 | Total 46,035 | Total 66,511 | Total 22,925 | Total 18,129 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| There was a total of 162,665 overseas adoptions out of South Korea from 1953 to 2008. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
South Korean Ministry for Health, Welfare and Family Affairs (2009)[4] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Intercountry Adoptions Out of South Korea by Country From 2007 to 2011.6 | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Total | US | Sweden | Canada | Norway | Australia | Luxemburg | Denmark | France | Italy | |
| 2007 | 1,264 | 1,013 | 80 | 68 | 20 | 44 | 3 | 22 | 14 | - | |
| 2008 | 1,250 | 988 | 76 | 78 | 45 | 18 | 16 | 20 | 8 | 1 | |
| 2009 | 1,125 | 850 | 84 | 67 | 40 | 34 | 17 | 21 | 8 | 4 | |
| 2010 | 1,013 | 775 | 74 | 60 | 43 | 18 | 12 | 21 | 6 | 4 | |
| 2011.6 | 607 | 495 | 26 | 27 | 20 | 17 | 9 | 8 | 3 | 2 | |
| Disabled South Korean Children Adoptions | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| By Year | Total | Before 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011.6 |
| Total | 39,540 | 33,812 | 757 | 843 | 669 | 712 | 764 | 725 | 540 | 153 | 133 | 252 | 180 |
| Home | 476 | 197 | 14 | 16 | 20 | 7 | 27 | 12 | 40 | 29 | 36 | 47 | 31 |
| Abroad | 39,064 | 33,615 | 743 | 827 | 649 | 705 | 737 | 713 | 500 | 124 | 97 | 205 | 149 |
| Yearly South Korean Children Adoptions | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Category | Total | Before 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011.6 | ||||
| Total | Total | 239,493 | 221,190 | 3,562 | 3,231 | 2,652 | 2,556 | 2,439 | 2,475 | 1,388 | |||
| Home | 75,190 | 66,146 | 1,461 | 1,332 | 1,388 | 1,306 | 1,314 | 1,462 | 781 | ||||
| Abroad | 164,303 | 155,044 | 2,101 | 1,899 | 1,264 | 1,250 | 1,125 | 1,013 | 607 | ||||
| Types of Adoptees (Causes for Adoption) in South Korea | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Domestic Adoption | International Adoption | |||||||
| Total | Single mom's child | Child under facility care | Child from broken family etc. | Total | Single mom's child | Starvation etc. | Child from broken family | ||
| 2007 | 1,388 | 1,045 | 118 | 225 | 1,264 | 1,251 | 11 | 2 | |
| 2008 | 1,306 | 1,056 | 86 | 164 | 1,250 | 1,114 | 10 | 126 | |
| 2009 | 1,314 | 1,116 | 70 | 128 | 1,125 | 1,005 | 8 | 112 | |
| 2010 | 1,462 | 1,290 | 46 | 126 | 1,013 | 876 | 4 | 133 | |
| 2011.6 | 781 | 733 | 22 | 26 | 607 | 537 | 8 | 62 | |
| Adoption Circumstances in South Korea from 1958 to 2008 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Abandoned | Broken Home | Single Mother | Total | |||||
| 1958-1960 | 1,675 | 630 | 227 | 2,532 | |||||
| 1961-1970 | 4,013 | 1,958 | 1,304 | 7,275 | |||||
| 1971-1980 | 17,260 | 13,360 | 17,627 | 48,247 | |||||
| 1981-1990 | 6,769 | 11,399 | 47,153 | 65,321 | |||||
| 1991-2000 | 255 | 1,444 | 20,460 | 22,129 | |||||
| 2001 | 1 | 1 | 2,434 | 2,436 | |||||
| 2002 | 1 | 0 | 2,364 | 2,365 | |||||
| 2003 | 2 | 2 | 2,283 | 2,287 | |||||
| 2004 | 0 | 1 | 2,257 | 2,258 | |||||
| 2005 | 4 | 28 | 2,069 | 2,101 | |||||
| 2006 | 4 | 5 | 1,890 | 1,899 | |||||
| 2007 | 11 | 2 | 1,251 | 1,264 | |||||
| 2008 | 10 | 126 | 1,114 | 1,250 | |||||
| Total | 29,975 | 28,956 | 102,433 | 161,364 | |||||
| Foster Care Status in South Korea | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Total | Substitute family care | Foster care by relatives | General foster care | |||||
| No. of households | No. of children | No. of households | No. of children | No. of households | No. of children | No. of households | No. of children | ||
| 2006 | 10,253 | 14,465 | 6,152 | 9,062 | 3,097 | 4,160 | 1,004 | 1,243 | |
| 2007 | 11,622 | 16,200 | 6,975 | 10,112 | 3,651 | 4,850 | 996 | 1,238 | |
| 2008 | 11,914 | 16,454 | 7,488 | 10,709 | 3,436 | 4,519 | 990 | 1,226 | |
| 2009 | 12,170 | 16,608 | 7,809 | 10,947 | 3,438 | 4,503 | 923 | 1,158 | |
| 2010 | 12,120 | 16,359 | 7,849 | 10,865 | 3,365 | 4,371 | 906 | 1,123 | |
| Community Home Status in South Korea | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | No. of facilities | No. of children | No. of employees | ||||||
| Total | Male | Female | |||||||
| 2006 | 1,030 | ||||||||
| 2007 | 276 | 1,368 | 745 | 623 | 623 | ||||
| 2008 | 348 | 1,664 | 884 | 780 | 754 | ||||
| 2009 | 397 | 1,993 | 1,076 | 917 | 849 | ||||
| 2010 | 416 | 2,127 | 1,125 | 1,002 | 894 | ||||
| Child Welfare Facilities in South Korea | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Gender | ||
| Total | Male | Female | |
| 2006 | 18,817 | 10,789 | 8,028 |
| 2007 | 18,426 | 10,563 | 7,863 |
| 2008 | 17,992 | 10,229 | 7,763 |
| 2009 | 17,586 | 10,105 | 7,481 |
| 2010 | 17,119 | 9,790 | 7,329 |
| USA Adoptions of Koreans 1999-2015 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Adopted Koreans | Year | Adopted Koreans | Year | Adopted Koreans | ||
| 1999 | 1,994 | 2007 | 938 | 2015 | 318 | ||
| 2000 | 1,784 | 2008 | 1,064 | ||||
| 2001 | 1,862 | 2009 | 1,079 | ||||
| 2002 | 1,776 | 2010 | 865 | ||||
| 2003 | 1,793 | 2011 | 736 | ||||
| 2004 | 1,713 | 2012 | 627 | ||||
| 2005 | 1,628 | 2013 | 138 | ||||
| 2006 | 1,373 | 2014 | 370 | ||||
| Statistics of 167 Adult Korean Adoptees in 1999 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Adoptive Parents | ||
| Adoptive Caucasian Mother | 98% | |
| Adoptive Caucasian Father | 97% | |
| Neighborhood Growing Up | ||
| Neighborhood Was Only Caucasian | 70% | |
| Neighborhood Included Other Asians | 15% | |
| Neighborhood Included Non-Asian-Non-Caucasians | 13% | |
| Friends Growing Up | ||
| Friends Were Only Caucasian | 55% | |
| Had Asian Friends | 24% | |
| Had Non-Asian-Non-Caucasian Friends | 19% | |
| Siblings | ||
| Other Korean Adopted Siblings | 52% | |
| Biological Children of Adoptive Parent | 26% | |
| Respondent Was The Only Child | 13% | |
| Domestically Adopted Siblings | 7% | |
| Internationally Adopted, non-Korean Siblings | 3% | |
| Race of Spouse | ||
| Spouse | Korean Men | Korean Women |
| Caucasian | 50% | 80% |
| Asian | 50% | 13% |
| Black | 0% | 3% |
| Latino | 0% | 3% |
| View of Own Ethnicity During Childhood and Adolescence | ||
| Caucasian | 36% | |
| Korean-American or Korean-European | 28% | |
| American or European | 22% | |
| Asian or Korean | 14% | |
| View of Own Ethnicity as Adults | ||
| Korean-American or Korean-European | 64% | |
| Asian or Korean | 14% | |
| Caucasian | 11% | |
| American or European | 10% | |
| Korean Heritage Exploration Method | ||
| Activity | Growing Up | As Adults |
| Korean and/or Adoptee Events & Organizations | 72% | 46% |
| Book/Study | 22% | 40% |
| Korean Friends or Contacts | 12% | 34% |
| Korean Food | 12% | 4% |
| Travel to South Korea | 9% | 38% |
| Korean Language Study | 5% | 19% |
| Status of Search for Birth Family | ||
| Interested in Searching | 34% | |
| Not Interested in Searching | 29% | |
| Have Searched or Are Searching | 22% | |
| Uncertain If Interested in Searching | 15% | |
| Reason for Search for Birth Family | ||
| Obtain Medical Histories | 40% | |
| Curiosity | 30% | |
| Meet People Who Look Like Them | 18% | |
| Learn Reason They Were Given Up for Adoption | 18% | |
| Learn If They Have Relatives, Especially Siblings | 16% | |
| Fill Void or Find Closure | 16% | |
| Send Message to Birth Parents | 10% | |
1999 to 2016 US adoptees
From 1999 to 2015, there have been 20,058 Koreans adopted by US families. Of these 20,058 children, 12,038 (about 60%) have been male and 8,019 (about 40%) have been female. Of these 20,058 children, 16,474 were adopted when they were less than one year old, 3,164 were adopted when they were between one and two years old and 310 were adopted when they were between three and four years old. Of these 20,058 children, 19,222 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-4 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa, and 836 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-3 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa.[46]
Adoptee Associations
The first association to be created for adult Korean adoptees was Adopterade Koreaners Förening which as founded on November 19, 1986, in Sweden.[47] In 1995, the first Korean adoptee conference was held in Germany, and, in 1999, Korean adoptee conferences were arranged in both the US and South Korea.[1]
A 2010 book about South Korean adoption estimated that ten percent of Korean adoptees who are over the age of eighteen are part of adult Korean adoptee associations.[4]
| Korean Adoptee Associations | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Region | Date Founded | Website |
| International Korean Adoptee Associations | International | 2004[48] | website |
| Adopted Koreans' Association | Sweden | 1986[49] | website |
| AKConnection | Minnesota, USA | 2000[50] | website |
| Also-Known-As, Inc. | New York, USA | 1996[51] | website |
| Arierang | The Netherlands | 1991[52] | website |
| Asian Adult Adoptees of Washington | Washington, USA | 1996[53] | website |
| Korea Klubben | Denmark | 1990[54] | website |
| Racines Coréennes | France | 1995[55] | website |
| Association of Korean Adoptees-San Francisco | San Francisco, USA | website | |
| Global Overseas Adoptees' Link | South Korea | 1997[56] | website |
| Boston Korean Adoptees | Massachusetts, USA | website | |
| Dongari | Switzerland | 1994[57] | website |
| Korean Canadian Children's Association | Canada | 1991[58] | website |
| Me and Korea | English speakers[59] | 2012[60] | website |
| Korean American Adoptee Adoptive Family Network | USA | 1998[61] | website |
Individual Korean adoptees
Works of Korean adoptees have become known both in art, literature and film-making. Other Korean adoptees have received celebrity status for other reasons, like Soon-Yi Previn who is married to Woody Allen, actresses Nicole Bilderback, and Jenna Ushkowitz, Washington State Senator Paull Shin, former Slovak rap-artist Daniel Hwan Oostra, Kristen Kish of Top Chef - Season 10, make-up artist turned content creator Claire Marshall[62] and former French minister Fleur Pellerin.
See also
References
- 1 2 3 4 Korea - adoptionens historia (Um & Yang 3/1999) at the Wayback Machine (archived February 15, 2003)
- 1 2 Global Overseas Adoptees' Link Dual Citizenship Campaign at the Wayback Machine (archived July 22, 2011)
- 1 2 Moon, K. H. (2015). The past and future of international adoption. Brookings. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from link
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kim, E.J. (2010). Adopted Territory: Transnational Korean Adoptees and the Politics of Belonging. Durham and London: Duke University Press. 20-22 & 25.
- ↑ "Adoption History: Bertha and Harry Holt".
- 1 2 3 POV. "Adoption History - First Person Plural - POV - PBS".
- 1 2 Domestic Adoption. (2015). Korea 4 Expats. Retrieved 10/29/2016, from link
- ↑ "South Korea's troubled export: babies for adoption". 25 May 2007 – via Reuters.
- ↑ "Pity the children" – via The Economist.
- 1 2 http://kumfa.or.kr/?ckattempt=1
- ↑ "South Korea's Single Moms Struggle To Remove A Social Stigma".
- ↑ An Adoptee's Perspective in Korean Adoption at the Wayback Machine (archived June 30, 2009)
- ↑ Lee, Claire http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20141222001093
- 1 2 Baker, M. "South Korea struggles to free itself from adoption stigma" (1997). Christian Science Monitor. at the Wayback Machine (archived October 5, 2015)
- ↑ "The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition): Daily News from Korea - Celebrity Couple Adopts 'God-Sent' Addition to Family".
- ↑ History of Adoption in Korea. Korea Adoption Services. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from link
- 1 2 3 4 Haruch, S. (2014). In Korea, Adoptees Fight To Change Culture That Sent Them Overseas. NPR. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from link
- ↑ Kim, Dae-Jung, President Kim Dae Jung's Speech: October 23, 1998 at the Blue House, in Chosen Child, vol 1, no 5, May 1999: 15-16
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rothschild, Matthew, Babies for Sale "South Koreans make them, Americans buy them", The Progressive, U.S, January 1988 16 August 1999 at the Wayback Machine (archived July 16, 2011)
- 1 2 Hübinette, T. (2003). North Korea and adoption. page 4. Retrieved November 8, 2016, from link
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The Gathering of the First Generation of Adult Korean Adoptees: Adoptees' Perceptions of International Adoption at the Wayback Machine (archived August 19, 2000)
- ↑ Jones, Maggie (January 14, 2015). "Why a Generation of Adoptees Is Returning to South Korea". The New York Times.
- 1 2 3 Homeland Divide: Korean adoptees are flocking to their birth country—changing the landscape of international adoptions. (2005). Hyphen: Asian America Unabridged. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from link
- ↑ After 37 years in US, Korean adoptee speaks out about imminent deportation. (2016). The Guardian. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from link
- ↑ Unmarried Mothers in Korea. Korea 4 Expats. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from link
- ↑ Gage, S.L. (2007). Pure Mixed Blood: The Multiple Identities of Amerasians in South Korea. 55, 56, 61 & 81.
- 1 2 S.C.S. (2015). Why adoptions are so rare in South Korea. The Economist. Retrieved November 8, 2016, from link
- 1 2 Rasmussen, K.S. (2010). Journal of Korean Adoption Studies: Volume 2, Number 1. Global Overseas Adoptees' Link.
- ↑ Why are South Koreans reluctant to adopt children? (2015). BBC News. Retrieved November 11, 2016, from link
- ↑ Hjern A, Lindblad F & Vinnerljung B. (2002). Suicide, psychiatric illness, and social maladjustment in intercountry adoptees in Sweden: a cohort study. The Lancet. 360(9331). 443-8.
- ↑ New Immigration Strategy: Koreans Send Children to America for Adoption at the Wayback Machine (archived February 20, 2006)
- ↑ Kim, O.M., Reichwald, R., & Lee, R.M. (2012). Cultural Socialization in Families with Adopted Korean Adolescents: A Mixed-Method, Multi-Informant Study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(1).
- ↑ Ramirez, M. (2005). Adoptees: Identity can be a long journey. The Seattle Times. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from link
- ↑ Sangrigoli, S. et al. (2005). Reversibility of the Other-Race Effect in Face Recognition During Childhood. American Psychological Society. 16(6). 440-444.
- ↑ Le, C.N. About Me & F.A.Q.s. Asian Nation: Asian American History. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from link
- ↑ Le, C.N. Adopted Asian Americans. Asian Nation: Asian American History. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from link
- 1 2 Meier, Dani Isaac, Loss And Reclaimed Lives: Cultural Identity And Place In Korean-american Intercountry Adoptees, Graduate Thesis, University Of Minnesota, March 1998.
- ↑ "Beyond Culture Camp: Promoting Healthy Identity Formation in Adoption - The Donaldson Adoption Institute".
- 1 2 By Global Overseas Adoptees' Link, Collection of Resources & Scrapbook of G.O.A.'L
- ↑ Intercountry Adoption: South Korea at the Wayback Machine (archived October 17, 2011)
- ↑ Adoptions to Sweden. (2002). Embassy of Sweden. Retrieved 10/29/2016, from link
- ↑ Gaw, A.C. (1993). Culture, Ethnicity & Mental Illness. Washington, D.C. & London, England: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. page 352.
- ↑ Davenport, D. (2011). South Korean Adoptions: Canary in the International Adoption Mine? Creating a Family: The National Infertility & Adoption Education Nonprofit. Retrieved November 8, 2016, from link
- ↑ International Adoption Statistics. (2016). Australian InterCountry Adoption Network. Retrieved November 4, 2016, from link
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Expert discussion on the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption held. (2011). Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare. Retrieved 10/28/2016 from link.
- 1 2 Statistics. Bureau of Consular Affairs - US Department of State. Retrieved 10/28/2016 from link.
- ↑ AKF. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ History. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ IKF. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Home. AK Connection. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Also-Known-As, Inc. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Arierang. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Asian Adult Adoptees of Washington. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Korea Klubben (DK). International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Racines Coréennes. International Korean Adoptee Associations. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Timeline. Global Overseas Adoptees' Link. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Über uns: Porträt. Dongari. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ About KCCA. Korean Canadian Children's Association. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Adult Tour. Me & Korea. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ Board of Directors. Me & Korea. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from link
- ↑ From the Executive Director. Korean American Adoptee Adoptive Family Network. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from link
- ↑ Claire Marshall (13 December 2012). "My Tattoos - heyclaire" – via YouTube.
Further reading
- Kane, Saralee, "The movement of children for international adoption: An epidemiologic perspective", Social Science Journal, 1993, Vol. 30 Issue 4, p323.
- Meier, Dani Isaac, "Loss and Reclaimed Lives: Cultural Identity and Place in Korean-American Intercountry Adoptees", Graduate thesis, University of Minnesota, March 1998
- Pate, SooJin, From Orphans to Adoption: US Empire and Genealogies of Korean Adoption. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.
- Schwekendiek, Daniel, "Korean migration to the wealthy West", New York: Nova Publishers, 2012