Old Church Slavonic grammar

Old Church Slavonic is an inflectional language with moderately complex verbal and nominal systems.

Nouns

o-stems

Masculine gender ("town")
- Singular Dual Plural
N grad-ъ grad-a grad-i
G grad-a grad-u grad-ъ
D grad-u grad-oma grad-omъ
A grad-ъ grad-a grad-y
V grad-e grad-a grad-i
L grad-ě grad-u grad-ěxъ
I grad-omь grad-oma grad-y

Nouns belonging to this declension class are generally masculines ending in -ъ in the nominative singular (bogъ, gradъ, rodъ). The only exception are the nouns in -ъ that inflect as u-stem masculines.

Sometimes (but not yet obligatorily, in contrast to later Slavic languages), in the accusative singular, the beginnings of a difference between an animate and inanimate subgender can be seen, as the genitive may occasionally be used instead of the accusative for animate objects (raba beside rabъ).


Nouns with the suffix -(j)an-in-ъ (graždaninъ) also belong to this declension class in the singular, but in the plural they lose the -in- interfix and conform to the consonantal paradigm (graždane, graždanъ, graždanem, graždany, graždane, graždanexъ, graždany).

Neuter gender ("wine")
- Singular Dual Plural
N vin-o vin-ě vin-a
G vin-a vin-u vin-ъ
D vin-u vin-oma vin-omъ
A vin-o vin-ě vin-a
V vin-o vin-ě vin-a
L vin-ě vin-u vin-ěxъ
I vin-omь vin-oma vin-y

Nouns belonging to this declension class are neuters ending in -o in the nominative singular (selo, lěto, město). The only exception are the few neuters that are inflected as s-stems.

jo-stems

Masculine gender ("knife")
- Singular Dual Plural
N nož-ь nož-a nož-i
G nož-a nož-u nož-ь
D nož-u nož-ema nož-emъ
A nož-ь nož-a nož-ę
V nož-u nož-a nož-i
L nož-i nož-u nož-ixъ
I nož-emь nož-ema nož-i

Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in -ь preceded by a palatal in the nominative singular (vračь, kralь, košь).

This paradigm encompasses nouns such as krai that don't appear to be ending in a palatal, but are in fact underlyingly combinations like krajь and so undergo this declension (kraj -ь, kraj -a).

Nouns ending in agentive suffixes -tel-ь and -ar-ь also belong to this class (učitelь, učitelja, učitelju..., mytarь, mytarja, mytarju...).

Neuter gender ("sea")
- Singular Dual Plural
N mor-e mor-i mor-a
G mor-a mor-u mor-ь
D mor-u mor-ema mor-emъ
A mor-e mor-i mor-a
V mor-e mor-i mor-a
L mor-i mor-u mor-ixъ
I mor-emь mor-ema mor-i

The jo-stem declension class encompasses neuters ending in -e (lože, polje, molenьe).

a-stems

Feminine gender ("hand/arm")
- Singular Dual Plural
N rǫk-a rǫc-ě rǫk-y
G rǫk-y rǫk-u rǫk-ъ
D rǫc-ě rǫk-ama rǫk-amъ
A rǫk-ǫ rǫc-ě rǫk-y
V rǫk-o rǫc-ě rǫk-y
L rǫc-ě rǫk-u rǫk-axъ
I rǫk-ojǫ rǫk-ama rǫk-ami

Nouns belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in -a preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (žena).

Also belonging to this paradigm are the rare masculines ending in -a (sluga, vojevoda).

ja-stems

Feminine gender ("soul")
- Singular Dual Plural
N duš-a duš-i duš-ę
G duš-ę duš-u duš-ь
D duš-i duš-ama duš-amъ
A duš-ǫ duš-i duš-ę
V duš-e duš-i duš-ę
L duš-i duš-u duš-axъ
I duš-ejǫ duš-ama duš-ami

Noun belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in -a preceded by a soft, palatal consonant (straža, svešta, mrěža).

This paradigm also encompasses feminines ending in -i (rabyni, bogyni), -ica (děvica) and -ьni- (rizьnica), and also masculines ending in -a preceded by a palatal (junoša).

i-stems

Masculine gender ("guest")
- Singular Dual Plural
N gost-ь gost-i gost-ьje
G gost-i gost-ьju gost-ьi
D gost-i gost-ьma gost-ьmъ
A gost-ь gost-i gost-i
V gost-i gost-i gost-ьje
L gost-i gost-ьju gost-ьxъ
I gost-ьmь gost-ьma gost-ьmi

Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in -ь preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (črьvь, gospodь, pǫtь). The only exception are a limited number of such nouns belonging to the n-stem paradigm.

Feminine gender ("bone")
- Singular Dual Plural
N kost-ь kost-i kost-i
G kost-i kost-ьju kost-ьi
D kost-i kost-ьma kost-ьmъ
A kost-ь kost-i kost-i
V kost-i kost-i kost-i
L kost-i kost-ьju kost-ьxъ
I kost-ьjǫ kost-ьma kost-ьmi

Nouns belonging to the i-stem feminine declension are feminines ending in -ь in the nominative singular (rěčь, noštь, tvarь).

The only exception is the noun krъvь which undergoes ъv-stem (ū-stem) declension.

u-stems

Masculine gender ("house")
- Singular Dual Plural
N dom-ъ dom-y dom-ove
G dom-u dom-ovu dom-ovъ
D dom-ovi dom-ъma dom-ъmъ
A dom-ъ dom-y dom-y
V dom-u dom-y dom-ove
L dom-u dom-ovu dom-ъxъ
I dom-ъmь dom-ъma dom-ъmi

Nouns belonging to this declension are a rather small group of masculines: činъ, domъ, ledъ, medъ, mirъ, polъ, sanъ, synъ, volъ, vrъxъ.

ū-stems

Feminine gender
- Singular Dual Plural
N tik-y tikъv-i tikъv-i
G tikъv-e tikъv-u tikъv-ъ
D tikъv-i tikъv-ama tikъv-amъ
A tikъv-ь tikъv-i tikъv-i
V tik-y tikъv-i tikъv-i
L tikъv-e tikъv-u tikъv-axъ
I tikъv-ьjǫ tikъv-ama tikъv-ami

Nouns belonging to the ū-stem declension (also known as -ъv- declension, or v-stem declension) are: buky, brady, cěly, crьky, horǫgy, loky, ljuby, neplody, prěljuby, smoky, svekry, žrьny, kry (this last form is attested in Psalterium Sinaiticum; older sources list the accusative form krъvь as a lemma).

n-stems

Masculine gender ("stone")
- Singular Dual Plural
N kam-y kamen-i kamen-e
G kamen-e kamen-u kamen-ъ
D kamen-i kamen-ьma kamen-ьmъ
A kamen-ь kamen-i kamen-i
V kam-y kamen-i kamen-e
L kamen-e kamen-u kamen-ьxъ
I kamen-ьmь kamen-ьma kamen-ьmi

Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following masculines: dьnь, jelenь, jęčьmenь, kamy, korenь, plamy, remenь, sęženь, stepenь.

Neuter gender ("tribe")
- Singular Dual Plural
N plem-ę plemen-i plemen-a
G plemen-e plemen-u plemen-ъ
D plemen-i plemen-ьma plemen-ьmъ
A plem-ę plemen-i plemen-a
V plem-ę plemen-i plemen-a
L plemen-e plemen-u plemen-ьxъ
I plemen-ьmь plemen-ьma plemen-y

Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: brěmę, čismę, imę, pismę, plemę, sěmę, slěmę, těmę, vrěmę.

s-stems

Neuter gender ("sky/heaven")
- Singular Dual Plural
N neb-o nebes-ě nebes-a
G nebes-e nebes-u nebes-ъ
D nebes-i nebes-ьma nebes-ьmъ
A neb-o nebes-ě nebes-a
V neb-o nebes-ě nebes-a
L nebes-e nebes-u nebes-ьxъ
I nebes-ьmь nebes-ьma nebes-y

Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: čudo, divo, drěvo, kolo, nebo, tělo, slovo and also uxo and oko which have dual forms like i-stems.

t-stems

Neuter gender ("calf")
- Singular Dual Plural
N tel-ę telęt-ě telęt-e
G telęt-e telęt-u telęt-ъ
D telęt-i telęt-ьma telęt-ьmъ
A tel-ę telęt-ě telęt-a
V tel-ę telęt-ě telęt-a
L telęt-e telęt-u telęt-ьxъ
I telęt-ьmь telęt-ьma telęt-y

The t-stem (also known as nt-stem) paradigm encompasses neuters denoting a young of an animal or human: otročę, agnę, kozьlę, kljusę, osьlę, ovьčę, telę, žrěbę etc.

r-stems

Feminine gender ("mother")
- Singular Dual Plural
N mat-i mater-i mater-i
G mater-e mater-u mater-ъ
D mater-i mater-ьma mater-ьmъ
A mater-ь mater-i mater-i
V mat-i mater-i mater-i
L mater-i mater-u mater-ьxъ
I mater-ьjǫ mater-ьma mater-ьmi

r-stem feminines are the nouns mati and dъšti.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

First-person pronoun
- Singular Dual Plural
N azъ vě my
G mene naju nasъ
D mьně (mi) nama (na) namъ (ny)
A mene (mę) na (ny) ny
L mьně naju nasъ
I mъnojǫ nama nami
Second-person pronoun
- Singular Dual Plural
N ty va (vy) vy
G tebe vaju vasъ
D tebě (ti) vama (va) vamъ
A tebe (tę) va (vy) vasъ (vy)
L tebě vaju vasъ
I tobojǫ vama vami

Third-person pronoun
- Singular Dual Plural
- Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
N *i (jь) *ja *je ja i (ji) i (ji) i (ji) ję ja
G jego jeję jego jeju jeju jeju (j)ixъ (j)ixъ (j)ixъ
D jemu jei jemu (j)ima (j)ima (j)ima (j)imъ (j)imъ (j)imъ
A i (jь), nь jǫ je ja ji ji ję ję ja
L jemь jei jemь jeju jeju jeju (j)ixъ (j)ixъ (j)ixъ
I (j)imь jejǫ (j)imь (j)ima (j)ima (j)ima (j)imi (j)imi (j)imi

Just as the first and second person pronouns, the third person pronoun is commonly used only in oblique cases. Nominative singular forms are not attested in the OCS corpus, and are reconstructed. In the East South Slavic dialectal area where OCS originated, a suppletive nominative singular stem of the demonstrative tъ ('that') is used, elsewhere onъ ('that one there, yon'), or very rarely sь ('this').

By attaching the enclitic particle že to the forms of *i one obtains the relative pronoun: iže ('he who'), ježe ('the (female) one to whom'), jejuže ('the two of whom'), etc.

When following prepositions, these pronouns take a prothetic n-, hence kъ n'imъ ('to them') instead of *imъ, na n'emь ('on him'), etc. This is a remnant of final -m/n in the PIE prepositions *kom (cf. Latin cum, Sanskrit kám),

  • sm̥ (cf. Sanskrit sám) and
  • h₁n̥ that yielded the OCS prepositions kъ, sъ, and vъ and then spread analogically to all the other prepositions.

Reflexive pronoun
- Singular
N -
G sebe
D sebě (si)
A sę
L sebě
I sobojǫ

The reflexive pronoun has only singular oblique forms, which is the state of affairs inherited from PIE *swé. The reflexive pronoun refers to the subject as a whole, and can be translated as English -self (myself, yourself, himself etc.)

Relative pronoun

Relative pronoun
- Singular Dual Plural
- Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
N iže jaže ježe jaže iže iže iže jęže jaže
G jegože jejęže jegože jejuže jejuže jejuže ixъže ixъže ixъže
D jemuže jeiže jemuže imaže imaže imaže imъže imъže imъže
A iže jǫže ježe jaže iže iže jęže jęže jaže
L jemьže jeiže jemьže jejuže jejuže jejuže ixъže ixъže ixъže
I imьže jejǫže imьže imaže imaže imaže imiže imiže imiže

As mentioned, the third person pronoun *i participates in the formation of the relative pronoun by appending the indeclinable enclitic že. Unlike the third person pronoun, however, the nominative case forms do occur. Similarly, a prothetic n- occurs when following prepositions, e.g., vъ n'ьže ('in which').

Interrogative pronoun and adjective

Interrogative pronoun
- Masculine,
Feminine		 Neuter
N kъto čьto (čь)
G kogo česo (česogo, čьso, čьsogo)
D komu česomu (čьsomu, čemu)
A kogo čьto
L komь čemь (česomь)
I cěmь čimь

The interrogative pronoun ('who?, what?') has singular-only forms, with the masculine and feminine forms syncretized. Variant forms of čьto occurring in some of the oblique cases have been listed in parentheses.

Interrogative adjective (pronoun)
- Singular Dual Plural
- Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
N kyi (ky) kaja koje (kaja) - - cii kyję kaja
G kojego kojeję (koję) kojego (kojeju) (kojeju) (kojeju) kyixъ (koixъ) kyixъ (koixъ) kyixъ (koixъ)
D kojemu kojei (koi) kojemu kyima kyima kyima kyimъ kyimъ kyimъ
A kyi kǫjǫ (kojǫ) koje (kaja) - - kyję kyję kaja
L kojemь kojei kojemь (kojeju) (kojeju) (kojeju) kyixъ kyixъ kyixъ
I kyimь kojejǫ (kojǫ) kyimь kyima kyima kyima kyimi kyimi kyimi

The interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the interrogative pronoun ('which?, what sort of?'), also has some variant forms listed in parentheses.

Possessive interrogative adjective (pronoun)
- Singular Dual Plural
- Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
N čii (ky) čija čije (čija) - - čii čiję čija
G čijego čijeję (koję) čijego (čijeju) (čijeju (čijeju čiixъ (koixъ) čiixъ (koixъ) čiixъ (koixъ)
D čijemu čijei (koi) čijemu čiima čiima čiima čiimъ čiimъ čiimъ
A čii čijǫ (kojǫ) čije (čija) - - čiję čiję čija
L čijemь čijei čijemь (čijeju) (čijeju) (čijeju) čiixъ čiixъ čiixъ
I čiimь čijejǫ (kojǫ) čiimь čiima čiima čiima čiimi čiimi čiimi

The possessive interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the possessive interrogative pronoun ('whose?'), follows the same declension.

Indefinite pronouns and adjectives

The interrogative pronouns kъto, čьto can also have the indefinite meanings of 'anybody', 'anything' respectively.

The prefix ně- imparts an indefinite meaning to the word to which it is attached: thus kъto ('who?') becomes někъto ('someone'), and čьto ('what?') becomes něčьto ('something'). Similarly, the prefix ni- imparts a negative meaning: nikъto ('no one'), ničьto ('nothing'). A prepositions may come between prefix and base word:

ně u kogo — with someone
ni o komьže nerodiši — you care for no one

Adjectives

OCS adjectives can be in two forms: short and long, corresponding to indefinite and definite meaning respectively. The long form is generally used only attributively, whereas the short form is predicative in nature. So, e.g., člověkъ dobrъ "a good man, man is good" whilst člověkъ dobryi "the good man, the man who is good".

Indefinite adjectives are inflected as the corresponding nouns of the primary declension, e.g., novъ as rabъ, nova as žena, novo as selo, ništь as vračь, ništa as duša, nište as polje.

Definite adjectives (also known as compound, long, or pronominal forms of adjective) are formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun jь (spelled as i in OCS orthography), ja, je as shown in the table.

 "new"
N novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi nova + ja = novaja
G nova + jego = novajego novy + jeję = novyję
D novu + jemu = novujemu nově + jei = nověi
A novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi novǫ + jǫ = novǫjǫ
L nově + jemь = novějemь nově + jei = nověi
I novomь + imь = novъimь > novyimь novojǫ + jejǫ = novojǫ, novǫjǫ
N, A nova + ja = novaja nově + i = nověi
G, L novu + jeju = novuju novu + jeju = novuju
D, I novoma + ima = novyima novoma + ima = novyima
N novi + (j)i = novii novy + ję = novyję
G novъ + ixъ = novyixъ novъ + ixъ = novyixъ
D novomъ + imъ = novyimъ novamъ + imъ = novyimъ
A novy + ję = novyję novy + ję = novyję
L nověxъ + ixъ = novyixъ novaxъ + ixъ = novyixъ
I novy + imi = novyimi novami + imi = novyimi

Adjective gradation

There are three levels of adjective gradation in OCS:

Comparative

  1. Adjectives with falling tone on the root syllable:
    dragъ ("dear") − draž-ii (m), draž-e (n), draž-ьši (f);
    tęžьkъ ("heavy") − tęžii, tęže, tęžьši;
    grǫbъ ("grumpy") − grǫblii, grǫble, grǫblьši.
  2. Adjectives with rising tone on the root syllable:
    novъ ("new") − nov-ěi, nov-ěje, nov-ěiši;
    starъ ("old") − star-ěi, star-ěje, star-ěiši;
    junъ ("young") − jun-ěi, jun-ěje, jun-ěiši.

Declension of the comparative

N dražii draže dražьši juněi juněje juněiši
G dražьša dražьša dražьšę juněiša juněiša juněišę
D dražьšu dražьšu dražьši juněišu juněišu juněiši
A dražьšii draže dražьšǫ juněi juněje juněišǫ
L dražьši dražьši dražьši juněiši junějiši juněiši
I dražьšemь dražьšemь dražьšejǫ juněišemь juněišemь juněišejǫ
N, A dražьša dražьši dražьši juněiša juněiši juněiši
G, L dražьšu dražьšu dražьšu juněišu juněišu juněišu
D, I dražьšema dražьšema dražьšama juněišema juněišema juněišama
N dražьše dražьša dražьšę juněiše juněiša juněišę
G dražьšь dražьšь dražьšь juněišь juněišь juněišь
D dražьšemъ dražьšemъ dražьšamъ juněišemъ juněišemъ juněišamъ
A dražьšę dražьša dražьšę juněišę juněiša juněišę
L dražьšixь dražьšixь dražьšaxь juněišixь juněišixь juněišaxь
I dražьši dražьši dražьšami juněiši juněiši juněišami

Superlative

The superlative is formed:

  1. by adding the prefix nai- to the comparative base: naidražii, naitęžьši, naigrǫble;
  2. by combining the comparative form with the pronoun vьsego/vьsěxъ: nověi vьsego, dražii vьsěxъ.

The absolute superlative is formed:

  1. by adding the prefix prě- to the positive: prědragъ, prěnova, prěstaro;
  2. by using the adverb Ʒělo with the positive: Ʒělo dragъ, Ʒělo nova, Ʒělo staro.

Numerals

Cardinals

1 jedinъ (m), jedina (f), jedino (n)
2 dъva (m), dъvě (f and n)
3 tri (m), trьje (f and n)
4 četyri (m), četyre (f and n)
5 pętь
6 šestь
7 sedmь
8 osmь
9 devętь
10 desętь
11 jedin-ъ/a/o na desęte
12 dъv-a/ě na desęte
20 dъva desęti
21 dъva desęti i jedin-ъ/a/o
22 dъva desęti i dъv-a/ě
30 trije desęte
40 četyre desęte
50 pętь desętь
60 šestь desętь
70 sedmь desętь
80 osmь desętь
90 devętь desętь
100 sъto
200 dъvě sъtě
300 tri sъta
400 četyre sъta
500 pętь sъtъ
1 000 tysęšti, tysǫšti
2 000 dъvě tysǫšti
5 000 pętь tysǫštь
10 000 desętь tysǫštь or tьma
20 000 dъvadesęti tysǫštь or dъvě tьmě
100 000 sъto tysǫštь or leĝeonъ

Declension of cardinal numbers

1 pronominal declension jedinъ − jedinogo, jedina − jedinoję
2 pronominal declension, only in dual
3 undergoes i-stem declension, plural forms only
4 exactly like trьje, tri, except for the nominative and genitive which undergo consonant-stem declension
5−10 undergoes i-stem declension, only in singular, except for desętь which also has dual and plural forms
11−19 only the first component is inflected, e.g., jedinomu na desęte
20, 30, 40 both components are inflected, e.g., dъvěma desętьma, trьmь desętьmь
50−90 only the first component is inflected, e.g., pętijǫ desętь
sъto is declined as selo, tysęšti as bogyni, tьma as žena, leĝeonъ as rabъ

Ordinals

1 prъvyi, prъvaja, prъvoje
2 vъtoryi, vъtoraja, vъtoroje
3 tretii, tretijaja, tretijeje
4 četvrъyi, četvrъaja, četvrъoje
5 pętyi, pętaja, pętoje
11 prъvyi / prъvaja / prъvoje na desęte
20 dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje
21 dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje prъv-yi/aja/oje
60 šestьdesętьn-yi/aja/oje
100 sъtъn-yi/aja/oje
1 000 tysǫčьn-yi/aja/oje

All ordinals are inflected like the corresponding adjectives.

Verbs

Present

The present tense is formed by adding present-tense endings onto the present tense stem, which itself is sometimes hidden due to sound changes that have occurred in the past (more common verbs are listed):

There are several classes of verbs:

1. e-type verbs add the interfix -e- to the present stem (except in front of -ǫ) and the endings:

Verb Singular Plural Dual
bosti (bod-) ("be (future)")
  • 1. bod -ǫ
  • 2. bod -e + -ši
  • 3. bod -e + -tъ
  • 1. bod -e + -mъ
  • 2. bod -e + -te
  • 3. bod -ǫtъ
  • 1. bod -e + -vě
  • 2. bod -e + -ta
  • 3. bod -e + -te
rešti (rek-) ("speak")
  • 1. rek -ǫ
  • 2. reč -e + -ši
  • 3. reč -e + -tъ
  • 1. reč -e + -mъ
  • 2. reč -e + -te
  • 3. rek -ǫtъ
  • 1. reč -e + -vě
  • 2. reč -e + -ta
  • 3. reč -e + -te

2. i-type verbs exhibit the same set of endings, but this time the interfix is -i- (except in front of -ǫ and -ę). In the first person singular one finds the processes of iotation (k/c + j > č, g/z + j > ž, x/s + j > š, l + j > lj, n + j > nj, t + j > št, d + j > žd) and epenthesis (bj > blj, pj > plj, mj > mlj, vj > vlj):

Verb Singular Plural Dual
xvaliti (xval-) ("praise")
  • 1. xval + -j + -ǫ
  • 2. xval -i + -ši
  • 3. xval -i + -tъ
  • 1. xval -i + -mъ
  • 2. xval -i + -te
  • 3. xval -ętъ
  • 1. xval -i + -vě
  • 2. xval -i + -ta
  • 3. xval -i + -te
ljubiti (ljub-) ("love")
  • 1. ljub + -lj + -ǫ
  • 2. ljub -i + -ši
  • 3. ljub -i + -tъ
  • 1. ljub -i + -mъ
  • 2. ljub -i + -te
  • 3. ljub -ętъ
  • 1. ljub -i + -vě
  • 2. ljub -i + -ta
  • 3. ljub -i + -te

3. The athematic verbs byti, dati, věděti, iměti and jasti form the present tense irregularly:

Verb Singular Plural Dual
byti ("be")
  • 1. jesmь
  • 2. jesi
  • 3. jestъ
  • 1. jesmъ
  • 2. jeste
  • 3. sǫtъ
  • 1. jesvě
  • 2. jesta
  • 3. jeste
věděti ("know")
  • 1. věmь
  • 2. věsi
  • 3. věstъ
  • 1. věmъ
  • 2. věste
  • 3. vědętъ
  • 1. věvě
  • 2. věsta
  • 3. věste
iměti ("have")
  • 1. imamь
  • 2. imaši
  • 3. imatъ
  • 1. imamъ
  • 2. imate
  • 3. imǫtъ
  • 1. imavě
  • 2. imata
  • 3. imate
jasti ("eat")
  • 1. jamь
  • 2. jasi
  • 3. jastъ
  • 1. jamъ
  • 2. jaste
  • 3. jadętъ
  • 1. javě
  • 2. jasta
  • 3. jaste

One should distinguish the verbs iměti (imamь, imaši, imatъ), imati (jemljǫ, jemleši, jemletъ) and jęti (imǫ, imeši, imetъ). Exceptional is also the verb xotěti which exhibits iotation even though it's not an i-type verb (xoštǫ, xošteši, xoštetъ).

Asigmatic aorist

The asigmatic aorist (also called root or simple aorist) was named after the loss of the phoneme /s/ in the inflection (AGr. sigma), i.e. there is no VsV > VxV change (intervocalic /s/ yielding /x/). Over time, the asigmatic aorist became increasingly marked as an archaic language feature and was eventually replaced by the other two aorist formations.

The asigmatic aorist was formed by adding to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs with stem ending in a consonant (i.e. verbs with the infix -nǫ-, which is dropped before the aorist endings, and verbs with the null infix) the following endings: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

Verb Singular Plural Dual
pasti (pad-) ("fall") 1. pad -ъ

2. pad -e
3. pad -e

 1. pad -omъ

2. pad -ete
3. pad -ǫ

 1. pad -ově

2. pad -eta
3. pad -ete

tešti (tek-) ("flow") 1. tek -ъ

2. teč -e
3. teč -e

 1. tek -omъ

2. teč -ete
3. tek -ǫ

 1. tek -ově

2. teč -eta
3. teč -ete

mošti (mog-) ("be able to") 1. mog -ъ

2. mož -e
3. mož -e

 1. mog -omъ

2. mož -ete
3. mog -ǫ

 1. mog -ově

2. mož -eta
3. mož -ete

dvignǫti (dvig-) ("move") 1. dvig -ъ

2. dviž -e
3. dviž -e

 1. dvig -omъ

2. dviž -ete
3. dvig -ǫ

 1. dvig -ově

2. dviž -eta
3. dviž -ete

Sigmatic aorist

The sigmatic or s-aorist was formed in the following ways:

The 2nd and 3rd person singular forms of these verbs match the infinitive stem due to the elision of word-final sigma.
Verb Singular Plural Dual
xvaliti (xvali-) 1. xvali -x -ъ

2. xvali
3. xvali

 1. xvali -x -omъ

2. xvali -s -te
3. xvali -š -ę

 1. xvali -x -ově

2. xvali -s -ta
3. xvali -s -te

tešti (tek-) 1. těxъ (tek -s -ъ)

2. teče
3. teče

 1. těxomъ (tek -s -omъ)

2. těste
3. těšę

 1. těxově (tek -s -ově)

2. těsta
3. těste

greti (greb-) 1. grěsъ

2. grebe
3. grebe

 1. grěsomъ

2. grěste
3. grěsę

 1. grěsově

2. grěsta
3. grěste

bosti (bod-) 1. basъ

2. bode
3. bode

 1. basomъ

2. baste
3. basę

 1. basově

2. basta
3. baste

New aorist

The new aorist (also known as ox-aorist) is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs ending in a consonant (verbs with the interfix -nǫ- and verbs with the null interfix) the interfix -os- (-ox) and onto it the endings -ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te. Intervocalic sigma s changes into x.

The 2nd and the 3rd person singular forms are not attested and thus the asigmatic aorist forms are taken as a replacement.

Verb Singular Plural Dual
krasti (krad-) ("steal") 1. krad -ox -ъ

2. (krad -e)
3. (krad -e)

 1. krad -ox -omъ

2. krad -os -te
3. krad -oš -ę

 1. krad -ox -ově

2. krad -os -ta
3. krad -os -te

rešti (rek-) 1. rek -ox -ъ

2. (reč -e)
3. (reč -e)

 1. rek -ox -omъ

2. rek -os -te
3. rek -oš -ę

 1. rek -ox -ově

2. rek -os -ta
3. rek -os -te

iti (id-) ("go/walk") 1. id -ox -ъ

2. (id -e)
3. (id -e)

 1. id -ox -omъ

2. id -os -te
3. id -oš -ę

 1. id -ox -ově

2. id -os -ta
3. id -os -te

Imperfect

There are two ways of forming the imperfect:

1. If the infinitive stems ends in -a or -ě, the interfix -ax- is appended (which changes to -aš- according to the first palatalization in front of e) and onto it, the endings of the asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

Verb Singular Plural Dual
glagolati (glagola-) ("speak") 1. glagola -ax -ъ

2. glagola -aš -e
3. glagola -aš -e

 1. glagola -ax -omъ

2. glagola -aš -ete
3. glagola -ax -ǫ

 1. glagola -ax -ově

2. glagola -aš -eta
3. glagola -aš -ete

viděti (vidě-) ("see") 1. vidě -ax -ъ

2. vidě -aš -e
3. vidě -aš -e

 1. vidě -ax -omъ

2. vidě -aš -ete
3. vidě -ax -ǫ

 1. vidě -ax -ově

2. vidě -aš -eta
3. vidě -aš -ete

2. The other way of forming the imperfect, applying to all other verbal stems, is by adding onto the present stem the interfix -ěax- (which, in accordance with the first palatalization, is changed to -ěaš- in front of e) and onto it the endings of asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

Verb Singular Plural Dual
zъvati (zov-) ("call") 1. zov -ě -ax -ъ

2. zov -ě -aš -e
3. zov -ě -aš -e

 1. zov -ě -ax -omъ

2. zov -ě -aš -ete
3. zov -ě -ax -ǫ

 1. zov -ě -ax -ově

2. zov -ě -aš -eta
3. zov -ě -aš -ete

bosti (bod-) 1. bod -ě -ax -ъ

2. bod -ě -aš -e
3. bod -ě -aš -e

 1. bod -ě -ax -omъ

2. bod -ě -aš -ete
3. bod -ě -ax -ǫ

 1. bod -ě -ax -ově

2. bod -ě -aš -eta
3. bod -ě -aš -ete

Both of these imperfect formations often occur side by side in verbs with stem alternation:

In the texts of the OCS canon the forms are often contracted, so that ěax becomes ěx and aax becomes ax. An illustrating example is in Chernorizets Hrabar's famous work O pismenex "An Account of Letters":

Prěžde ubo slověne ne iměxǫ knigъ, nǫ črъtami i rězami čьtěxǫ i gataaxǫ, pogani sǫšte.

Some forms exhibit sound changes, namely palatalization or iotation in front of ě, yat thus turning into a. The same applies if the stem ends in j which is then reduced in front of yat and yat again changes into a:

That the second form and not the first is the original one (the first being formed by the change of yat to a) is confirmed by the imperfect paradigm of the verb byti:

Verb Singular Plural Dual
byti 1. běaxъ

2. běaše
3. běaše

 1. běaxomъ

2. běašete
3. běaxǫ

 1. běaxově

2. běašeta
3. běašete

Participles

Present active participle

The present active participle is formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

(e.g., greti (greb-) > greby; grebǫšti)

2. e-type verbs whose present stem ends in a palatal:

(e.g., kupovati (kupuj-) > kupuję, kupujǫšti)

3. i-type verbs:

(e.g., ljubiti (ljub-) > ljubę, ljubęšti)

Present passive participle

The present passive participle is formed by suffixing to the present stem the endings -o/e/i + m + ъ/a/o (masculine, feminine, neuter):

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

(e.g., pešti (pek-) > pekomъ, pekoma, pekomo)

2. e-type verbs whose stem ends in a palatal:

(e.g., želeti (želj-) > željemъ, željema, željemo)

3. i-type verbs:

(e.g., xvaliti (xval-) > xvalimъ, xvalima, xvalimo)

Past active participle

The past active participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

(e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodъ, bodъši)

2. i-type verbs exhibit epenthetic v, which eliminates hiatus:

(e.g., xvaliti (xvali-) > xvalivъ, xvalivъši)

The latter i-type verbs have twofold forms of this participle - the mentioned one of older origin, and a newer one which arose due to analogical leveling:

3. Verbs with liquid metathesis form this participle from its older stem form:

4. Irregular participles:

l-participle

The l-participle (also known as the resultative participle or second past active participle) is formed by adding to the infinitive stem the interfix -l- and the endings ъ/a/o. If the stem ends in -t or -d, this consonant is dropped.

Past passive participle

The past passive participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. Verbs with stem ending in a consonant, -y or -i:

(e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodenъ, bodena, bodeno)
(e.g., nositi (nosi-) > nošenъ, nošena, nošeno - by iotation from nosi + enъ > nosjenъ > nošenъ)
(e.g., umyti with interfix -ъv- > umъvenъ, umъvena, umъveno)

2. Verbs with stem ending in -a or -ě:

(e.g., glagolati (glagola-) > glagolanъ, glagolana, glagolano)
(e.g., viděti (vidě-) > vižden, viždena, viždeno - by iotation from viděn, viděna, viděno)

3. Verbs with stem ending in -ę, -u, -i and -ě (obtained by liquid metathesis):

(e.g., klęti (klę-) > klętъ, klęta, klęto)
(e.g., obuti (obu-) > obutъ, obuta, obuto)
(e.g., mrěti (mrě-) > mrětъ, mrěta, mrěto)
(e.g., viti (vi-) > vitъ, vita, vito)

Of the latter verbs, those with stem ending in -i (viti, biti etc.) can also form the past passive participle like the verbs in the first group: bitъ or bijenъ, vitъ or vijenъ etc.).

Compound tenses

Perfect

The perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the imperfective present forms of the auxiliary verb byti.

Pluperfect

The pluperfect can be formed in multiple ways, by combining the l-participle with the perfect, imperfect or aorist formation of the auxiliary verb byti.

Future

The future tense is usually expressed using the present tense form of the perfective verb. Imperfective verbs form the future tense by combining the auxiliary verb (byti, xotěti, načęti, iměti) and the infinitive.

Future perfect

The future perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the perfective present of the auxiliary verb byti.

Conditional

The conditional (or conditional-optative) modal formation is formed by combining the l-participle with special modal forms of the auxiliary verb byti (with unattested dual forms):

An alternative conditional is formed with the perfective aorist forms of byti:

Adverbs

Primary adverbs

These are original adverbs with difficult to guess etymology and origin.

Derived adverbs

Pronominal adverbs

Pronominal adverbs are derived by suffixing pronouns (e.g., ov + amo = ovamo, kъ + de = kъde):

Nominal adverbs

Nominal adverbs are derived from nominals or turn by conversion to adverbs which are in fact inflective lexemes with adverbial semantics.

Modal adverbs are created with the suffixes -o or -ě (the endings of accusative and locative singular neuter gender respectively), with no difference in meanings between suffixes, although some adverbs have only the forms in -o (veselo), and some in -ě (javě).

Modal adverbs could also be formed deadjectivally by means of the interfix -ьsk- and the ending -y (by origin, the instrumental plural ending; e.g., slověnьsky).

Adverbs could also be formed with the suffix -ь (pravь, različь) and are by origin probably inherited Proto-Slavic accusative forms.

Frequently occurring are the adverbialized a-stem instrumentals such as jednьnojǫ and also adverbially used oblique cases.

Locative adverbs are by origin mostly petrified locative case forms of nouns: gorě, dolě, nizu, and the same can be said for temporal adverbs: zimě, polu dьne.

Prepositions

Primary prepositions

The primary and non-derived prepositions are of PIE and PSl. heritage:

Secondary prepositions

The secondary prepositions are derived from adverbial expressions: vьslědъ from vь slědъ, prěžde is a comparative form of prědъ etc.

Conjunctions and particles

Conjunctions and particles are not easily separable because they sometimes function as an intensifier, and sometimes as a conjunction.

Notes

    References

    External links

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