Social determinants of obesity

Changing rates of obesity are related to a number of social phenomena including: social class, smoking status, number of children people have, and urbanization.

While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they cannot explain the current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally.[1] It is accepted that calorie consumption in excess of calorie expenditure leads to obesity, however what has caused shifts in these two factors on a global scale is much debated.

Social class

See Also : Social determinants of health in poverty

The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. A review in 1989 found that in developed countries women of a high social class were less likely to be obese. No significant differences were seen among men of different social classes. In the developing world, women, men, and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity.[1] An update of this review carried out in 2007 found the same relationships, but they were weaker. The decrease in strength of correlation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization.[2]

Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is thought that in developed countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they are under greater social pressure to remain slim, and have more opportunities along with greater expectations for physical fitness. In undeveloped countries the ability to afford food, high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring a larger body size are believed to contribute to the observed patterns.[2] Attitudes toward body mass held by people in one's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time has been found between friends, siblings, and spouses.[3]

Food Deserts

The term “food desert” was reputedly first used by a resident of a public sector housing scheme in the west of Scotland in the early 1990s to capture the experience of living in a deprived neighborhood where food was expensive and relatively unobtainable. The phrase first appeared in an “official” publication in 1995, as part of a report from a policy working group investigating grocery distribution and food retailing on behalf of the Low Income Project Team of the UK government's Nutrition Task Force.[4] The term "food desert" is used to "describe populated urban areas where residents do not have access to an affordable and healthy diet." Reports have "suggested that food deserts may damage public health by restricting the availability and affordability of foods that form the components of a healthy diet."[5] Nicole I. Larson and her colleagues did a research review to relate obesity with neighborhood environments. They argue that “availability of fast-food restaurants and energy-dense foods has been found to be greater in lower-income and minority neighborhoods.” When neighborhoods have more access to supermarkets with fresh produce there is a decrease in unhealthy dietary habits and levels of obesity. “Low-income, minority, and rural neighborhoods” are affected the most by this little access to supermarkets and tend to have greater access to fast-food restaurants and convenience stores with energy-dense food.[6]

A study done by Elizabeth Baker and her colleagues in the St Louis, Missouri area found that “mixed-race or white high-poverty areas and all African American areas (regardless of income) were less likely than predominantly white higher-income communities to have access to foods that enable individuals to make healthy choices.”[7]

Stress

Stress and emotional brain networks foster eating behaviors that may lead to obesity. The neural networks underlying the complex interactions among stressors, body, brain and food intake are now better understood. Stressors, by activating a neural stress-response network, bias cognition toward increased emotional activity and degraded executive function. This causes formed habits to be used rather than a cognitive appraisal of responses. Stress also induces secretion of both glucocorticoids, which increases motivation for food, and insulin, which promotes food intake and obesity. Pleasurable feeding then reduces activity in the stress-response network, reinforcing the feeding habit.[8]

One study found that "higher work stress was associated with higher consumption of specific fatty foods among men but not women."[9]

In another study done by Richardson and her colleagues, "a sample of low-income women with children, we found that perceived stress was directly and positively associated with severe obesity, independent of eating behaviors and diet quality. In addition, perceived stress was directly and positively associated with unhealthy eating behaviors."[10]

Education

A study done by Shaikh and colleagues found that "in both unadjusted and adjusted analyses, lower levels of education and incomes were generally associated with higher likelihood of obesity and higher mean BMI."[11] Shaikh and his colleagues gathered data from the US National Health Interview Survey about 23,434 adults. With that information, the researchers conducted regression analyses to depict obesity in relation to different socioeconomic parts, such as education. With a P value <.001, they found that obesity was less common in adults with a higher educational attainment versus those with a lower educational attainment. They concluded that education and obesity are highly associated and their call to action was for public schools to have more health education.[12]

Similarly, in a study done in Germany, researchers found that "indicators of parental education were most strongly associated with children's obesity. There was a strong dose–response relationship between a composed index of social class and obesity. Children of the lowest social status had a more than three-fold risk to be obese than children of the highest social status in the screening population."[13]

Smoking

Those who quit smoking gain an average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years.[14] Changing rates of smoking however have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity.[15]

A study done by Sucharda found that if there is smoking in families or maternal smoking, the children are put at a higher risk for obesity. [16]

Label Literacy

Label literacy in important for people to understand nutritional facts about the foods they eat. In a research study done by Kennen and her colleagues, they sampled 210 obese adult patients at a primary care clinic and determined their literacy levels with a literacy screening instrument. With a p-value of <.05, they found a significant correlation between weight loss knowledge and literacy level. Two out of every three obese patients read below a 9th grade reading level. With these results, they came to the conclusion that the lower literacy a person has, the less knowledgeable they are in regards to the health effects associated with obesity and the more likely they are to underestimate the need to lose weight.[17]

Early malnutrition

Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world.[18] Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more calories become available.[18]

Number of children

In the United States the number of children a person has had is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's risk of obesity increases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child.[19] This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents.[20]

Urbanization

In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China, overall rates of obesity are below 5%. However, in some cities, rates of obesity are greater than 20%.[21]

Globalization

Globalization has made cheap fatty food available in all the nations, greatly increasing fat intake all over the world. "Fast food chains and vending machines packed with lipid-rich foods as well as high calorie sodas can now be found in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic and East Oakland, California alike". [22]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Sobal J, Stunkard AJ (March 1989). "Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature". Psychol Bull. 105 (2): 260–75. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260. PMID 2648443.
  2. 1 2 McLaren L (2007). "Socioeconomic status and obesity". Epidemiol Rev. 29: 29–48. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm001. PMID 17478442.
  3. ↑ Christakis NA, Fowler JH (2007). "The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years". New England Journal of Medicine. 357 (4): 370–379. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa066082. PMID 17652652.
  4. ↑ Cummins, Steven (2014-01-01). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9781118410868.wbehibs450/abstract;jsessionid=288a801a374a5f6c65f25d60a6589810.f02t02. ISBN 9781118410868.
  5. ↑ Cummins, Steven (2014-01-01). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9781118410868.wbehibs450/abstract. ISBN 9781118410868.
  6. ↑ "Neighborhood Environments". American Journal of Preventative Medicine. Elsevier Inc. January 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  7. ↑ EA, Baker; M, Schootman; E, Barnidge; C, Kelly (2006-07-01). "The role of race and poverty in access to foods that enable individuals to adhere to dietary guidelines.". Preventing chronic disease. 3 (3).
  8. ↑ Dallman, Mary F (2016-11-02). "Stress-induced obesity and the emotional nervous system". Trends in endocrinology and metabolism: TEM. 21 (3): 159–165. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2009.10.004. ISSN 1043-2760. PMC 2831158Freely accessible. PMID 19926299.
  9. ↑ Hellerstedt, W. L.; Jeffery, R. W. (1997-06-01). "The association of job strain and health behaviours in men and women.". International Journal of Epidemiology. 26 (3): 575–583. doi:10.1093/ije/26.3.575. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 9222783.
  10. ↑ Richardson, Andrea S.; Arsenault, Joanne E.; Cates, Sheryl C.; Muth, Mary K. (2015-01-01). "Perceived stress, unhealthy eating behaviors, and severe obesity in low-income women". Nutrition Journal. 14: 122. doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0110-4. ISSN 1475-2891. PMC 4668704Freely accessible. PMID 26630944.
  11. ↑ RA, Shaikh; M, Siahpush; GK, Singh; M, Tibbits (2016-10-23). "Socioeconomic status smoking alcohol use physical activity and dietary behavior as determinants of obesity and body mass index in the United States: Findings from the National Health Interview Survey.". International Journal of MCH and AIDS. 4 (1).
  12. ↑ "Open Journal Systems". Retrieved 2016-10-25.
  13. ↑ Lamerz, A.; Kuepper-Nybelen, J.; Wehle, C.; Bruning, N.; Trost-Brinkhues, G.; Brenner, H.; Hebebrand, J.; Herpertz-Dahlmann, B. (2005-01-01). "Social class, parental education, and obesity prevalence in a study of six-year-old children in Germany". International Journal of Obesity. 29 (4): 373–380. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802914. ISSN 0307-0565.
  14. ↑ Flegal KM, Troiano RP, Pamuk ER, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM (November 1995). "The influence of smoking cessation on the prevalence of overweight in the United States". N. Engl. J. Med. 333 (18): 1165–70. doi:10.1056/NEJM199511023331801. PMID 7565970.
  15. ↑ Chiolero A, Faeh D, Paccaud F, Cornuz J (1 April 2008). "Consequences of smoking for body weight, body fat distribution, and insulin resistance". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87 (4): 801–9. PMID 18400700.
  16. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49633725_Smoking_and_obesity
  17. ↑ Kennen, Estela M.; Davis, Terry C.; Huang, Jian; Yu, Herbert; Carden, Donna; Bass, Ricky; Arnold, Connie (2005-01-01). "Tipping the scales: the effect of literacy on obese patients' knowledge and readiness to lose weight". Southern Medical Journal. 98 (1).
  18. 1 2 Caballero B (March 2001). "Introduction. Symposium: Obesity in developing countries: biological and ecological factors". J. Nutr. 131 (3): 866S–870S. PMID 11238776.
  19. ↑ Weng HH, Bastian LA, Taylor DH, Moser BK, Ostbye T (2004). "Number of children associated with obesity in middle-aged women and men: results from the health and retirement study". J Womens Health (Larchmt). 13 (1): 85–91. doi:10.1089/154099904322836492. PMID 15006281.
  20. ↑ Bellows-Riecken KH, Rhodes RE (February 2008). "A birth of inactivity? A review of physical activity and parenthood". Prev Med. 46 (2): 99–110. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.08.003. PMID 17919713.
  21. ↑ "Obesity and Overweight" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  22. ↑ Jennifer, Brody, (2002-01-01). "The Global Epidemic of Childhood Obesity: Poverty, Urbanization, and the Nutrition Transition". Nutrition Bytes. 8 (2). ISSN 1548-601X.
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