Bruno Bettelheim

Bruno Bettelheim
Born (1903-08-28)August 28, 1903
Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Died March 13, 1990(1990-03-13) (aged 86)
Silver Spring, Maryland, United States
Citizenship United States
Nationality Austrian
Fields Psychology
Doctoral students Benjamin Drake Wright
Known for Contributions to child psychology;
The Uses of Enchantment
Spouse Regina Alstadt (1930–?; divorced)
Gertrude Weinfeld (1941–1984; her death; 3 children)[1]

Bruno Bettelheim was a fraudulent child psychologist who enjoyed a period of fame in the 1960s and '70s.

Background

Bruno Bettelheim was born in Vienna, Austria, on August 28, 1903. When his father died, Bettelheim left his studies at the University of Vienna to look after his family's sawmill. Bettelheim's first wife Gina took care of a troubled American child Patsy, who lived in the Bettelheim home in Vienna for seven years. Bettelheim later claimed he had taken care of the child and that she was autistic; neither of these claims were true.[2][3][4] Having discharged his obligations to his family's business, Bettelheim returned as a mature student in his 30s to the University of Vienna. He earned a degree in philosophy, producing a dissertation on Immanuel Kant and on the history of art.

In the Austrian academic culture of Bettelheim's time, one could not study the history of art without mastering aspects of psychology. Candidates for the doctoral dissertation in the History of Art in 1938 at Vienna University had to fulfill prerequisites in the formal study of the role of Jungian archetypes in art, and in art as an expression of the Freudian subconscious.

Though Jewish by birth, Bettelheim grew up in a secular family. After the Nazi invasion and Anschluss (political annexation) of Austria in March 1938, the Nazi authorities sent Bettelheim, other Austrian Jews and political opponents to the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps where they were brutally treated and tortured or killed. In Buchenwald he met and befriended the social psychologist Ernst Federn. As a result of an amnesty declared for Hitler's birthday (April 20, 1939), Bettelheim and hundreds of other prisoners regained their liberty. Bettelheim drew on the experience of the concentration camps for some of his later work.

Life and career in the United States

Bettelheim arrived by ship as a refugee in New York City in late 1939 to join his wife Gina, who had already emigrated. They divorced because she had become involved with someone else during their separation. He soon moved to Chicago and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1944 and married an American woman.

The University of Chicago appointed Bettelheim as a professor of psychology and he taught there from 1944 until his retirement in 1973. He wrote a number of books on psychology and for a time had an international reputation for his work on Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis, and emotionally disturbed children. He stated that the Viennese psychoanalyst Richard Sterba had analyzed him, as well as implying in several of his writings that he had written a PhD dissertation in the philosophy of education. His actual PhD was in art history, and he had only taken three introductory courses in psychology.[5]

During the same time period, Bettelheim also served as Director of the University of Chicago's Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School, a home that treats emotionally disturbed children. He made changes and set up an environment for milieu therapy, in which children could form strong attachments with adults within a structured but caring environment. He claimed considerable success in treating some of the emotionally disturbed children. He wrote books on both normal and abnormal child psychology and became a major influence in the field, widely respected during his lifetime. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971.[6]

Bettelheim analyzed fairy tales in terms of Freudian psychology in The Uses of Enchantment (1976). He discussed the emotional and symbolic importance of fairy tales for children, including traditional tales at one time considered too dark, such as those collected and published by the Brothers Grimm. Bettelheim suggested that traditional fairy tales, with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries, allowed children to grapple with their fears in remote, symbolic terms. If they could read and interpret these fairy tales in their own way, he believed, they would get a greater sense of meaning and purpose. Bettelheim thought that by engaging with these socially-evolved stories, children would go through emotional growth that would better prepare them for their own futures. In the U.S., Bettelheim won two major awards for The Uses of Enchantment: the National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism[7] and the National Book Award in category Contemporary Thought.[8] However, a 1991 article in The Journal of American Folklore charged that Bettelheim had engaged in plagiarism by unacknowledged borrowing from a number of sources, primarily Julius Heuscher's A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales (1963), although Heuscher himself stated he was not bothered.[9][10]

His writings covered a wide range of topics, beginning shortly after he arrived in the United States with an essay on concentration camps and their dynamics. He long had a reputation as an authority on these topics.[11]

At the end of his life Bettelheim suffered from depression. He appeared to have had difficulties with depression for much of his life.[11] In 1990, widowed, in failing physical health, and suffering from the effects of a stroke which impaired his mental abilities and paralyzed part of his body, he committed suicide as a result of self-induced asphyxiation by placing a plastic bag over his head.[12][13] He died on March 13, 1990, in a Maryland, U.S.[14]

Currently, many of Bettelheim's theories in which he attributes autism spectrum conditions to parenting style are considered to be discredited, not least because of the controversies relating to his academic and professional qualifications.[15][16][17]

Controversies

Misrepresentation of credentials

Even as early as a November 1990 Chicago Tribune article, questions were noted about Bettelheim's credentials. Different people seemed to believe different things about his background and credentials. Bertram Cohler and Jacquelyn Sanders at the Orthogenic School believed Bettelheim had a PhD in art history, which was in fact the case. Ralph Tyler, who had brought Bettelheim to the University of Chicago first to teach art history and then in 1944 to become director of the Orthogenic School, assumed Bettelheim had two PhDs, one in art history and the other in psychology. In some of his writings, Bettelheim implied that he had written a dissertation on the philosophy of education.[18]

A lot of information came out following the publication of two biographies, the first by Nina Sutton in 1996[19][20] and the second more critical biography by Richard Pollak in 1997.[21][22] These two somewhat competing biographies seemed to motivate journalists to look into the matter in more depth. A review in the Chicago Tribune states that Bettelheim reinvented himself "right out of the proverbial whole cloth."[5] A review in the New York Times frankly accuses Bettelheim of "concocting a new formula for snake oil and selling it to the public with flummery."[23]

Richard Pollak's The Creation of Dr. B: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim (1997) begins with a personal account, for his brother was a resident at Bettelheim's school. While home one summer on vacation, the two boys were playing hide-and-go-seek in a hay loft. The brother fell through a chute covered with hay, hit the concrete floor on the level below, and died. Years later Pollak, hoping to get some information about his brother's life, sought out Bettelheim. At which point, as Pollak recounts, "Bettelheim immediately launched into an attack. The boys' father, he said, was a simple-minded 'schlemiel.' Their mother, he insisted, had rejected Stephen at birth forcing him to develop 'pseudo-feeble-mindedness' to cope. 'What is it about these Jewish mothers, Mr. Pollak?' Bettelheim demanded, as his tirade against the author's parents raged on. Stephen, said Bettelheim, had managed to commit suicide."[24]

As a January 1997 review in the Baltimore Sun states, "The stance of infallibility over matters Pollak knew to be untrue prompted him to wonder about the foundation of Bettelheim's commanding reputation."[25] Pollak was in fact a former executive editor and literary editor at The Nation magazine, as well as having written for other major magazines.[11][26]

An April 1997 article in the Chicago Tribune states that Bettelheim claimed he had "summa cum laude degrees in three disciplines, had studied music with Arnold Schoenberg and had been called by Freud 'just the person we need for psychoanalysis to grow and develop.'"[24]

A 1997 Weekly Standard article stated, "There were snatches of truth in the tall tale, but not many. Bettelheim had earned a non-honors degree in philosophy, he had made acquaintances in the psychoanalytic community, and his first wife had helped raise a troubled child. But from 1926 to 1938 -- the bulk of the '14 years' at university -- Bettelheim had worked as a lumber dealer in the family business."[3]

Bettelheim had a Ph.D. in art history.[3][5] A posthumous review of his transcript showed that Bettelheim had only taken three introductory classes in psychology.[5]

Political controversy

Bettelheim became one of the most prominent defenders of Hannah Arendt's book Eichmann in Jerusalem. He wrote a positive review for The New Republic.[27] This review prompted a letter from a writer, Harry Golden, who alleged that both Bettelheim and Arendt suffered from "an essentially Jewish phenomenon … self-hatred".[28][29] Richard Pollak's biography The Creation of Dr. B portrays Bettelheim as a clear anti-Semite even though he was raised in a secular Jewish household, and that Bettelheim criticized in others the same cowardice he himself had displayed in the concentration camps.[30]

Autism controversy

The two above biographies awakened interest and focus on Bettelheim's actual methods as distinct from his public persona.[2][4][11][23]

Bettelheim's theories on the causes of autism have been largely discredited, and his reporting rates of cure have been questioned, with critics stating that his patients were not actually suffering from autism.[4] Bettelheim believed that autism did not have an organic basis, but resulted when mothers withheld appropriate affection from their children and failed to make a good connection with them. Bettelheim also blamed absent or weak fathers. One of his most famous books, The Empty Fortress (1967), contains a complex and detailed explanation of this dynamic in psychoanalytical and psychological terms. He derived his thinking from the qualitative investigation of clinical cases. He also related the world of autistic children to conditions in concentration camps. In A Good Enough Parent, published in 1987, he had come to the view that children had considerable resilience and that most parents could be "good enough" to help their children make a good start.[31]

Bettelheim subscribed to and became a prominent proponent of the "refrigerator mother" theory of autism: the theory that autistic behaviors stem from the emotional frigidity of the children's mothers. He founded the Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago as a residential treatment milieu for such children, whom he felt would benefit from a "parentectomy". This marked the apex of autism viewed as a disorder of parenting.[32]

A 2002 book on autism spectrum stated, "At the time, few people knew that Bettelheim had faked his credentials and was using fictional data to support his research."[33] Michael Rutter has observed, "Many people made a mistake in going from a statement which is undoubtedly true—that there is no evidence that autism has been caused by poor parenting—to the statement that it has been disproven. It has not actually been disproven. It has faded away simply because, on the one hand, of a lack of convincing evidence and on the other hand, an awareness that autism was a neurodevelopmental disorder of some kind."[34]

In a 1997 review of two books on Bettelheim, Molly Finn wrote “I am the mother of an autistic daughter and have considered Bettelheim a charlatan since The Empty Fortress, his celebrated study of autism, came out in 1967. I have nothing personal against Bettelheim, if it is not personal to resent being compared to a devouring witch, an infanticidal king, and an SS guard in a concentration camp, or to wonder what could be the basis of Bettelheim’s statement that 'the precipitating factor in infantile autism is the parent’s wish that his child should not exist.'”[4]

Although Bettelheim foreshadowed the modern interest in the causal influence of genetics in the section Parental Background, he consistently emphasised nurture over nature. For example: “When at last the once totally frozen affects begin to emerge, and a much richer human personality to evolve, then convictions about the psychogenic nature of the disturbance become stronger still.”; On Treatability, p. 412.

The rates of recovery claimed for the Orthogenic School are set out in Follow-up Data, with a recovery good enough to be considered a ‘cure’ of 43%., ps. 414–415.

Subsequently, medical research has provided greater understanding of the biological basis of autism and other illnesses. Scientists such as Bernard Rimland challenged Bettelheim's view of autism by arguing that autism is a neurodevelopmental issue. As late as 2009, the "refrigerator mother" theory retained some prominent supporters,[12][35] including the prominent Irish psychologist Tony Humphreys.[36] His theory still enjoys widespread support in France.[37]

Personal controversy

After Bettelheim's suicide in 1990, detractors claimed that Bettelheim exploded in screaming anger at students, and went beyond firm treatment to corporal punishment. Three former patients questioned his work and characterized him as a cruel tyrant. Roberta Carly Redford, a student at the Orthogenic School from age 16 to 23, claims in her book Crazy: My Seven Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogeneic School that she was "beaten regularly, emotionally abused, and subjected to a variety of humiliations. Bettelheim himself was a key part of this treatment." Other former patients wrote or spoke publicly to tell how much Bettelheim had helped them, so there seemed to be no consensus.[4][38][39]

Alida Jatich, who lived at the school from 1966 to 1972 from ages twelve to eighteen, wrote in an initially anonymous April 1990 letter to the Chicago Reader, “Bettelheim told the children over and over how lucky they were to be at his school, and that if they didn't do as they were told, they would end up in a state mental asylum where they would be given drugs and shock treatments.” She further stated, “I lived in fear of Bettelheim’s unpredictable temper tantrums, public beatings, hair pulling, wild accusations and threats and abuse in front of classmates and staff. One minute he could be smiling and joking, the next minute he could be exploding.” Ms. Alida Jatich publicly revealed her name and the time she was at the school in another letter a year later.[40][41]

In a July 1990 letter to the Chicago Reader, a former counselor at the school writing anonymously stated, "At that time, in the late forties, I probably had more experience upon which to assess the adjustment of the children than most of the counselors at the school. By age 22, when I worked there, I had spent fully a third of my life in group living with a variety of youngsters under stress; four years in an orphan home followed by three and a half years in the wartime army. I understood that the stream of human normality was very wide, and that time healed many wounds without human intervention. It amazed me that Bettelheim, a man from another culture, could look at the same child as I and see a 'schizophrenic' while I saw another rambunctious American kid. What did a forty year old Viennese intellectual really know about the inner (or outer for that matter) life of a ten-year-old West Side, Chicago Irish kid who had no one to care for him?”[42]

Richard Pollak's biography states that two separate women reported that Bettelheim fondled their breasts and those of other female students at the school while he was ostensibly apologizing for beating her[3][30]

This same Chicago Tribune article also contained additional accounts of abusive treatment of child patients at the 'Orthogenic School,' such as:
• '"I lived for years in terror of his beatings, in terror of his footsteps in the dorms--in abject, animal terror,"'
• 'would pull an adolescent girl out of a shower, then hit and berate her in front of dormitory mates,'
• 'another former student, Roberta Redford, recalls being summoned from a toilet stall for a similar thrashing,'
• 'Orthogenic School patient Charles Pekow had allergies, but was not allowed to take medication, even when overcome by asthmatic attacks. Bettelheim thought allergies were psychologically induced—a theory largely laid to rest by subsequent medical research,' and
• 'Richard Younker, a photojournalist in Chicago, remembers how he and a dormitory mate, both Cub Scouts, decorated their wall with a plaque illustrating how to tie knots. `"Dr. B said to the whole dorm: `Look, the two boys who are so twisted up inside show the whole world by putting knots on the wall,`" Younker says.'

In her April 1991 letter to the Chicago Reader, Alida Jatich wrote, "I suspect that the main reason why it's so hard to talk about the Bettelheim tragedy is this: in one way or another, he induced all of us to act in ways that we feel sick to think about now. This includes kids, parents, staff members, students and faculty at the University of Chicago, colleagues, and so forth.”[40]

Plagiarism charges regarding "Uses of Enchantment"

A Winter 1991 article in The Journal of American Folklore presented a case that Bettelheim had committed plagiarism in drawing from Dr. Julius E. Heuscher's book A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales (1963) and 1974 revised edition for his (Bettelheim's) book The Uses of Enchantment (1976). A Los Angeles Times article states, "Alan Dundes, a widely published expert on folklore and a 28-year veteran of Berkeley's anthropology department, details what he says is 'wholesale borrowing,' not only of 'random passages' but also of 'key ideas' in Bettelheim's 1976 book." Dundes states that many of Bettelheim's ideas are borrowed from scholars going back for almost 50 years, although the most obvious borrowing is from Heuscher's 1963 book. Heuscher himself was very gracious about the charges, stating "We all plagiarize. I plagiarize. Many times, I am not sure whether it came out of my own brain or if it came from somewhere else. . . . I'm only happy that I would have influenced Bruno Bettelheim. I did not always agree with him. But that does not matter. Poor Bruno Bettelheim. I would not want to disturb his eternal sleep with this" (ellipsis marks in LA Times article).[9][10][43]

According to a 1991 Chicago Tribune article, Dundes' article in The Journal of American Folklore states that Bettelheim's 1976 book also borrowed from a 1967 paper Dundes had written on Cinderella as well as other sources, although the primary borrowed is from Heuscher's 1963 book (with '74 revised edition). This Chicago Tribune article quotes another scholar who has written extensively on fairy tales that Alan Dundes is a "very serious scholar" who would only make such accusations of plagiarism for legitimate reasons. Dundes is also a former president of the American Folklore Association. Jacquelyn Sanders, who was the director of the Orthogenic School in 1991, states that she had read Dundes' article but did not believe many people would agree with his conclusions. She said, "I would not call that plagiarism. I think the article is a reasonable scholarly endeavor, and calling it scholarly etiquette is appropriate. It is appropriate that this man deserved to be acknowledged and Bettelheim didn't. . . . But I would not fail a student for doing that, and I don`t know anybody who would" (ellipsis marks in Chicago Trib. article).[44]

Nonresponse of psychiatric community

A September 10, 1990 Newsweek article stated: “Patients were not the only ones who knew of Bettelheim's explosive temper. There are indications that at least the local psychiatric community knew exactly what was going on, and did nothing. Chicago analysts scathingly referred to the doctor as ‘Beno Brutalheim.’”[45][46]

In an April 4, 1991 letter to the Chicago Reader, former student Alida Jatich asked, “Who are these analysts? Why didn't they warn the university and our parents? Why are they still keeping silent?”[40]

A November 1990 article in the Chicago Tribune reported that the University of Chicago's official biographical sketch of Bettelheim listed him as having a doctorate degree (Ph.D.) but did not specify the field.[18]

In a January 1997 Los Angeles Times review of Richard Pollak's biography The Creation of Dr. B: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim, Howard Gardner wrote, “When I began to discuss this biography with clinicians, several of them said in effect, 'Oh, we all knew this about Bettelheim. We did not believe his claims and figures; we knew he was a bastard.' I asked myself--and then I started to ask others--'Why did no one expose this fraud, this pretending saint who was tainted with evil? Did their silence encourage Bettelheim's excesses?' Answers varied from fear about Bettelheim's legendary capacity for retribution to the solidarity needed among the guild of healers to a feeling that, on balance, Bettelheim's positive attributes predominated and an unmasking would fuel more malevolent forces.”[30] Howard Gardner is a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, who is perhaps best known for his theory of multiple intelligences.

In a June/July 1997 article in First Things, Molly Finn wrote, "it is deplorable that the institution [University of Chicago] supported Bettelheim's work without ever setting up the oversight committee or board of visitors it usually appointed."[4]

In popular culture

In 1974, a four-part series featuring Bruno Bettelheim and directed by Daniel Carlin appeared on French television — Portrait de Bruno Bettelheim.

Woody Allen included Bettelheim as himself in a cameo in the film Zelig (1983).

A BBC Horizon documentary about Bettelheim was televised in 1986.[47]

Two former patients wrote about their experiences at the Orthogenics School, one in a novel and one in a memoir. Tom Lyons' novel, The Pelican and After, appeared in 1983. Stephen Eliot's memoir, Not the Thing I Was: Thirteen Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenics School, was published in 2003.

Bibliography

Major works by Bettelheim

Critical reviews of Bettelheim (works and person)

References

  1. ↑ "The Annual Obituary".
  2. 1 2 Boxer, Sarah (January 26, 1997). "The Man He Always Wanted to Be". The New York Times. Retrieved Dec 2, 2016. Bruno Bettelheim's new biographer lays his cards on the table right away: he thinks Bettelheim was a pathological liar.
  3. 1 2 3 4 THE BATTLE OVER BETTELHEIM, Weekly Standard, Peter D. Kramer, April 7, 1997.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Finn, Molly, June/July 1997, First Things, "In the Case of Bruno Bettelheim" Archived February 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.. " . . . Some undisputed facts are clearly laid out by both biographers: Patsy lived in the Bettelheim household for seven years. She was not autistic. She was cared for exclusively by Bettelheim's wife Gina. Interviews with Patsy herself and many people who knew the Bettelheims and Patsy corroborate these facts. . . "
  5. 1 2 3 4 Genius Or Fraud? Bettelheim's Biographers Can't Seem To Decide, Chicago Tribune, Ron Grossman, January 23, 1997, page 2: " . . But when the directorship of the Orthogenic School became available, he evidently gambled that because of the war no one would be able to check on his credentials. So he intimated to U. of C. officials that he had been cross-trained in psychology. Yet when his transcript was posthumously examined, it showed that he had taken but three introductory courses in the field. . "
  6. ↑ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  7. ↑ "All Past National Book Critics Circle Award Winners and Finalists". National Book Critics Circle. Retrieved 2012-03-09.
  8. ↑ "National Book Awards – 1977". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-09.
    There was a "Contemporary" or "Current" award category from 1972 to 1980.
  9. 1 2 Dundes, Alan: "Bruno Bettelheim's Uses of Enchantment and Abuses of Scholarship". The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 104, N0. 411. (Winter, 1991): pages 74–83.
  10. 1 2 Bettelheim Plagiarized Book Ideas, Scholar Says : Authors: The late child psychologist is accused of 'wholesale borrowing' for study of fairy tales, Los Angeles Times, Anne C. Roark, Feb. 7, 1991. ' . . [Alan Dundes] details what he says is "wholesale borrowing," . . . . . the most obvious "borrowing" comes from "A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales [book]," written by Heuscher in 1963. . '
  11. 1 2 3 4 Robert Gottlieb, "The Strange Case of Dr. B.", The New York Review of Books, 27 Feb 2003. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  12. 1 2 Severson, Katherine DeMaria; Aune, James Arnt; Jodlowski, Denise (2007). "Bruno Bettelheim, Autism, and the Rhetoric of Scientific Authority". In Osteen, Mark. Autism and Representation. Routledge research in cultural and media studies. Routledge. pp. 65–77. ISBN 978-0-415-95644-4. Retrieved August 28, 2009.
  13. ↑ Osgood, Nancy J. (July 1992). "Suicide in later life". Lexington Books (published 1992): 4. ISBN 978-0-669-21214-3. Retrieved January 29, 2010.
  14. ↑ Dr. Bruno Bettelheim, Child Psychology Expert, Chicago Tribune, John W. Fountain, March 14, 1990.
  15. ↑ Workshop on U.S. Data to Evaluate Changes in the Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs), U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), February 1, 2011, page 7, section Background: What Do We Know About ASD Prevalence? M. Yeargin-Allsopp, ' . . The “refrigerator mother” perception was prominent until the 1970s, continuing even into the 1980s. Today, autism is recognized as having a biologic basis and a range or spectrum of presentations. The autism spectrum disorders have been shown to occur among about 1% of children in several different countries. . '
  16. ↑ Why are the French still blaming mothers for autism?, Philly.com, Michael Yudell, Posted: Tuesday, January 31, 2012.
  17. ↑ Address to Florida Autism Task Force on World Autism Day, Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN), April 2, 2008. ' . . as a result of the medical community moving away from the odious and damaging inaccuracy that autism is the result of “refrigerator mothers.” . '
  18. 1 2 The Puzzle That Was Bruno Bettelheim, Chicago Tribune, Ron Grossman, November 11, 1990. See page 2 for different people believing somewhat different versions about his credentials. See page 4 for an intiguing quote from later director Jacquelyn Sanders, "Dr. B got worse once he started getting acclaim. He was less able to have any insight into his effect on these kids."
  19. ↑ Sutton, Nina (April 1, 1996). Bruno Bettelheim, Une vie [Bruno Bettelheim: A Life and a Legacy] (in French). Translated by David Sharp. Paris: Stock, Westview Press. p. 606. ISBN 2-234-02511-7. . . . The brilliant discoverer . . . Or the brutal and despotic bully . . .
  20. ↑ Bettelheim: A Life and a Legacy, Nina Sutton, 1996. Publishers Weekly review. " . . and to seek big grants that increased the pressure to claim research breakthroughs. However, psychiatric magic was often illusory, and bullying and condescension masked decades of anxieties compounded by survivor's guilt. . "
  21. ↑ Pollak, Richard (1997). The creation of Dr. B: A biography of Bruno Bettelheim. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 478. ISBN 0-684-80938-9.
  22. ↑ Russ Baker reviews the book "The Creation of Dr. B: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim" by Richard Pollak, Salon, Jan. 21, 1997. " . . Assuming Pollak has got it right — and there is more documentation here than most of us would need — Bettelheim joins the ranks of notorious dissemblers . . . "
  23. 1 2 An Icon of Psychology Falls From His Pedestal, New York Times, Books, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt (review of The Creation of Dr. B by Richard Pollak), Jan. 13, 1997. " . . Bettelheim seems to have re-enacted the archetypal American success story of inventing a false past, concocting a new formula for snake oil and selling it to the public with flummery. Under Mr. Pollak's magnifying glass, Bettelheim is seen in a new, harsh light, and stands exposed as a brilliant charlatan."
  24. 1 2 Setting The Record Straight About A `Fallen Guru', Chicago Tribune, Joan Beck, April 3, 1997. ' . . claimed he had summa cum laude degrees in three disciplines, had studied music with Arnold Schoenberg and had been called by Freud "just the person we need for psychoanalysis to grow and develop." . . '
  25. ↑ Bruno Bettelheim: a cautionary life, Baltimore Sun, Paul R. McHugh, Jan. 19, 1997.
  26. ↑ The Authors Guild, Member Profile, Richard Pollak. He has served several editorial positions with The Nation and Newsweek. He has written for Harper's, The Atlantic, The New York Times Book Review and other major magazines, as well as The Evening Sun (Baltimore) newspaper. Mr. Pollak was also co-founder and editor of [MORE] magazine, the monthly journalism review which was published in the 1970s.
  27. ↑ "The New Republic", June 15, 1963
  28. ↑ The New Republic, July 20, 1963
  29. ↑ "The Eichmann Polemics: Hannah Arendt and Her Critics", Book Review in Democratiya, Michael Ezra, London, 2007. Archived January 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  30. 1 2 3 The Confidence Man : THE CREATION OF DR. B.: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim. By Richard Pollak. Simon & Schuster: 478 pages, Los Angeles Times, reviewed by Howard Gardner (professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education), Jan. 19, 1997. " . . Pollak's book does not convict only Bettelheim, it indicts those of his time who knew the man but kept their reservations to themselves."
  31. ↑ Amazon reviews
  32. ↑ Millon, Theodore; Krueger, Robert F.; Simonsen, Erik, eds. (2011). Contemporary Directions in Psychopathology. Scientific Foundations of the DSM-V and ICD-11. New York City: Guilford Press. p. 555. ISBN 1-60623-533-8. ISBN 978-1-60623533-1.
  33. ↑ Elijah's Cup: A Family's Journey into the Community and Culture of High-Functioning Autism and Asperger's Syndrome, Revised Edition, Valerie Paradiz, Free Press, 2002; UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2005, pages 72-73: "At the time, few people knew that Bettelheim had faked his credentials and was using fictional data to support his research. In 1944, with a forged resumé that suggested a stellar academic career in psychoanalysis in Austria, Bettelheim had made his way into a post as the director of the Orthgenic School for Disturbed Children at the University of Chicago."
  34. ↑ Feinstein, Adam (2010). A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers. Blackwell's: Oxford, UK. p. 68.
  35. ↑ Feinstein, Adam. "'Refrigerator mother' tosh must go into cold storage". autismconnect. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
  36. ↑ Tony Humphreys (February 3, 2012). "Core connection: A diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome does little to help a child troubled by unhappy relationships". Irish Examiner. p. 7.
  37. ↑ Heurtevent, David (January 2, 2012). "Introduction to Autism in France: A Really Silly Psychiatric System !". Support The Wall – Autism. Retrieved February 25, 2012.
  38. ↑ Angres, Ronald: "Who, Really, Was Bruno Bettelheim?", Commentary, 90, (4), October 1990: 26–30.
  39. ↑ Bernstein, Richard: "Accusations of Abuse Haunt the Legacy of Dr. Bruno Bettelheim", New York Times, November 4, 1990: "The Week in Review" section. " . . not only of a tyrant but of a hypocrite as well. . "
  40. 1 2 3 Chicago Reader, Letters to the Editor, Brutal Bettelheim, Name Withheld, April 5, 1990. And Chicago Reader, Letters to the Editor, The Monster of the Midway, Alida Jatich, April 4, 1991. The author is a former resident of the 'Orthogenic School' from 1966-1972. In her second letter, she acknowledged authorship of the first.
  41. ↑ See also And They Call it Help: The Psychiatric Policing of America's Children, Louise Armstrong, Addison-Wesley, 1993, Chapter 3 "Bart Simpson Meets Bruno Bettelheim." See pages 75 and following for similar reports of abuse. See pages 77 and following for the response and nonresponse from the Chicago psychiatric community. See pages 80 and following for more of Alida Jatich's recounts of experiences and her thoughts regarding why more people didn't speak up.
  42. ↑ Chicago Reader, Letters to the Editor, The Cult of Bettelheim, "By WB A former counselor," July 5, 1990.
  43. ↑ A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales: Their Origin, Meaning and Usefulness, Julius E. Heuscher, illus. by Melba Bennett, Springfield, Illinois: Thomas pub., 1963, 224 pages. See also A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales: Their Origin, Meaning and Usefulness; an enlarged and thoroughly revised second edition, Julius E. Heuscher, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, publisher, April 1974, 422 pages.
  44. ↑ Bettelheim Accused Of Plagiarizing Book, Chicago Tribune, Sharman Stein, February 7, 1991. ' . . Jack Zipes, a professor of German at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, who has also written extensively about fairy tales, called Dundes "a very serious scholar" who would only make the accusations for legitimate reasons. . ' See also ' . . Jacquelyn Sanders, the current director of the Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago, said she had read Dundes' article but did not believe many people would agree with his accusations. "I would not call that plagiarism," she said. . '
  45. ↑ Late-Talking Children: A Symptom of a Stage?, Stephen M. Camarata, MIT Press, 2014. From "Ch. 4: Lessons from Autism: Charlatans, False Cures, and Questionable Cures", page 81 quotes a paragraph from Newsweek magazine.
  46. ↑ Newsweek, "'Beno Brutalheim'?," Nina Darnton, Sept. 10, 1990.
  47. ↑ http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-619953871843503232

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