Desalination facilities

Estimates vary widely between 15,000–20,000 desalination plants producing more than 20,000 m³/day. Micro desalination plants operate near almost every a natural gas or fracking facility is found in the United States.

Algeria

Algeria is believed to have at least 15 desalination plants in operation.

• Arzew IWPP Power & Desalination Plant, Arzew
• Cap Djinet Seawater Reverse Osmosis(SWRO) 100,000 m³/d^[1]
• Tlemcen Souk Tleta 200,000 m³/day
• Tlemcen Hounaine 200,000 m³/day
• Beni Saf 200,000 m³/day
• Tenes 200,000 m³/day
• Fouka 120,000 m³/day
• Skikda 100,000 m³/day
• Hamma Seawater Desalination Plant 200,000 m³/day built by GE^[2]
• Mostaganem, (Sonaghter) 200,000m3/day^[3]
• Magtaa Reverse Osmosis (RO) Desalination Plant 500 000m3/day, Oran, Algeria

Aruba

The island of Aruba has a large (world's largest at the time of its inauguration) desalination plant, with a total installed capacity of 11.1 million US gallons (42,000 m³) per day.^[4]

Australia

The Millennium Drought (1997–2009) led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. A combination of increased water usage and lower rainfall/drought in Australia caused state governments to turn to desalination. As a result, several large-scale desalination plants were constructed (see list).

Large-scale seawater reverse osmosis plants (SWRO) now contribute to the domestic water supplies of several major Australian cities including Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Perth and the Gold Coast. While desalination helped secure water supplies, it is energy intensive (≈$140/ML) and has a high carbon footprint due to Australia's coal-based energy supply. In 2010, a Seawater Greenhouse went into operation in Port Augusta.^[5][6][7]

A growing number of smaller scale SWRO plants are used by the oil and gas industry (both on and offshore), by mining companies to supply slurry pipelines for the transport of ore and on offshore islands to supply tourists and residents.

Bahrain

Completed in 2000, the Al Hidd Desalination Plant on Muharraq island employed a multistage flash process, and produces 272,760 m³ (9,632,000 cu ft) per day.^[8] The Al Hidd distillate forwarding station provides 410 million liters of distillate water storage in a series of 45-million-liter steel tanks. A 135-million-liters/day forwarding pumping station sends flows to the Hidd, Muharraq, Hoora, Sanabis, and Seef blending stations, and which has an option for gravity supply for low flows to blending pumps and pumps which forward to Janusan, Budiya and Saar.^[9]

Upon completion of the third construction phase, the Durrat Al Bahrain seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was planned to have a capacity of 36,000 cubic meters of potable water per day to serve the irrigation needs of the Durrat Al Bahrain development.^[10] The Bahrain-based utility company, Energy Central Co contracted to design, build and operate the plant.^[11]

Chile

• Copiapó Desalination Plant^[12]
• Thorium Power Canada, with its affiliate, DBI Chile, have proposed plans to build a 10 MW demonstration thorium reactor in Chile to power the 2000 litre/day desalination plant. All land and regulatory approvals are currently in process.^[13]

China

China operates the Beijing Desalination Plant in Tianjin, a combination desalination and coal-fired power plant designed to alleviate Tianjin's critical water shortage. Though the facility has the capacity to produce 200,000 cubic meters of potable water per day, it has never operated at more than one-quarter capacity due to difficulties with local utility companies and an inadequate local infrastructure.^[14]

Cyprus

A plant operates in Cyprus near the town of Larnaca.^[15] The Dhekelia Desalination Plant uses the reverse osmosis system.^[16]

Egypt

• Dahab RO Desalination Plants Dahab 3,600 m³/day completed 1999
• Hurgada and Sharm El-Sheikh Power and Desalination Plants
• Oyoun Moussa Power and Desalination
• Zaafarana Power and Desalination

Germany

Fresh water on the island of Helgoland is supplied by two reverse osmosis desalination plants.^[17]

Gibraltar

Fresh water in Gibraltar is supplied by a number of reverse osmosis and multistage flash desalination plants.^[18] A demonstration forward osmosis desalination plant also operates there.^[19]

Grand Cayman

• West Bay, West Bay, Grand Cayman^[20]
• Abel Castillo Water Works, Governor's Harbour, Grand Cayman^[21]
• Britannia, Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman^[22]

Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Water Supplies Department had pilot desalination plants in Tuen Mun and Ap Lei Chau using reverse-osmosis technology. The production cost was put at HK$7.8 to HK$8.4 /m³.^[23][24] Hong Kong used to have a desalination plant in Lok On Pai.^[25]

In 2014, the government confirmed the reservation of a 10-hectare site at Tseung Kwan O for the construction of a reverse-osmosis desalination plant with an initial output capacity of 50 million cubic metres per annum. Plans include provisions for future expansion to an ultimate capacity of 90 million cubic metres per annum, which will meet about 10 per cent of Hong Kong's fresh water demand. Detailed feasibility studies, preliminary design and a cost-effectiveness analysis are planned to be completed by 2014. A commissioning date of 2020 is envisaged.^[26][27]

India

The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the Minjur Desalination Plant near Chennai in India, which produces 36.5 million cubic meters of water per year.^[28][29]

A second plant at Nemmeli, Chennai is expected to reach full capacity of 100 million litres of sea-water per day in March 2013.^[30]

Iran

An assumption is that around 400,000 m³/d of historic and newly installed capacity is operational in Iran.^[31] In terms of technology, Iran's existing desalination plants use a mix of thermal processes and RO. MSF is the most widely used thermal technology although MED and vapour compression (VC) also feature.^[31]

Israel

Israel Desalination Enterprises' Sorek Desalination Plant north of Palmachim was foreseen to provide up to 26,000 m³ of potable water per hour once it went online in June 2013 (that is ca. 228 million m³ when projected on an entire year). At full capacity, it is the largest desalination plant of its kind in the world.^[32] Once unthinkable, given Israel's history of drought and lack of available fresh water resource, with desalination, Israel can now actually produce a surplus of fresh water.^[33]

The Hadera seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant in Israel is the largest of its kind in the world.^[34][35] The project was developed as a build–operate–transfer by a consortium of two Israeli companies: Shikun and Binui, and IDE Technologies.^[36]

By 2014, Israel's desalination programs provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40% by 2015 and 70% by 2050.^[37] As of May 29, 2015 more than 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.^[38]

Existing Israeli water desalination facilities^[39]

Location	Opened	Capacity (million m^3/year)	Cost of water (per m^3)	Notes
Ashkelon	August 2005	120	NIS 2.60	(capacity as of 2010)[35]
Palmachim	May 2007	45	NIS 2.90	[40]
Hadera	December 2009	127	NIS 2.60	[41]
Sorek[42][43]	2013	228	NIS 2.01 – 2.19	[44][45]
Ashdod	December 2015[46]	100	NIS 2.40	(expansion up to 150 million m^3/year possible)[47]

Additional desalination plants supply the entire freshwater needs of the city of Eilat by desalinating a mix of brackish well water and seawater. Similar plants exist in the Arava and the southern coastal plain of the Carmel range.^[48]

Malta

Ghar Lapsi II 50,000 m³/day^[49]

Maldives

Maldives is a nation of small islands. Some depend on desalination as a source of water.

Oman

A pilot seawater greenhouse was built in 2004 near Muscat, in collaboration with Sultan Qaboos University, providing a sustainable horticultural sector on the Batinah coast.^[50]

• Ghubrah Power & Desalination Plant, Muscat
• Sohar Power & Desalination Plant, Sohar
• Sur R.O. Desalination Plant 80,000 m³/day 2009^[51]
• Qarn Alam 1,000 m³/day
• Wilayat Diba 2,000 m³/day

There are at least two forward osmosis plants operating in Oman

• Al Najdah 200 m³/day (built by Modern Water)^[52]
• Al Khaluf^[53]

Qatar

• Ras Abu fontas (RAF) A2 - 160,000  m³/day. The country has plans for two plants with an additional 194 million gallons / day ^[54]

Saudi Arabia

The Saline Water Conversion Corporation of Saudi Arabia provides 50% of the municipal water in the Kingdom, operates a number of desalination plants, and has contracted $1.892 billion^[55] to a Japanese-South Korean consortium to build a new facility capable of producing a billion liters per day, opening at the end of 2013. They currently operate 32 plants in the Kingdom;^[56] one example at Shoaiba cost $1.06 billion and produces 450 million liters per day.^[57]

• Corniche RO Plant (Crop) (operated by SAWACO)
• Jubail 800,000 m³/day^[58]
• North Obhor Plant (operated by SAWACO)
• Rabigh 7,000 m³/day (operated by wetico)
• planned for completion 2018 Rabigh II 600,000 m³/day (under construction Saline Water Conversion Corporation)^[59]
• Shuaibah III 150,000 m³/day (operated by Doosan)
• South Jeddah Corniche Plant (SOJECO) (operated by SAWACO)
• Yanbu Multi Effect Distillation (MED), Saudi Arabia 146,160  m³/day ^[60]

Spain

Lanzarote is the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands, which are of volcanic origin. It is the closest of the islands to the Sahara desert and therefore the driest, and it has limited water supplies. A private, commercial desalination plant was installed in 1964 to serve the whole island and enable the tourism industry. In 1974, the venture was injected with investments from local and municipal governments, and a larger infrastructure was put in place in 1989, the Lanzarote Island Waters Consortium (INALSA)^[61] was formed.

A prototype seawater greenhouse was constructed in Tenerife in 1992.^[62]

• Alicante II 65,000 m³/day (operator Inima)
• Tordera 60,000 m³/day
• Barcelona 200,000 m³/day (operator Degremont) El Prat, near Barcelona, a desalination plant completed in 2009 was meant to provide water to the Barcelona metropolitan area, especially during the periodic severe droughts that put the available amounts of drinking water under serious stress.
• Oropesa 50,000 m³/day (operator TECNICAS REUNIDAS)
• Moncofa 60,000 m³/day (operator Inima)
• Marina Baja – Mutxamel 50,000 m³/day (operator Degremont)
• Torrevieja 240,000 m³/day (operator ACCIONA)
• Cartagena Escombreras 63,000 m³/day (operator COBRA | TEDAGUA)
• Edam Ibiza + Edam San Antonio 25,000 m³/day (operator Ibiza – Portmany)
• Mazarron 36,000 m³/day (operator TEDAGUA)
• Bajo Almanzora 65,000 m³/day

South Africa

• Mossel Bay 15,000 m³/day^[63]

Transnet Saldanha 2,400 m³/day^[64]

• Knysna 2,000 m³/day^[65]
• Plettenberg Bay 2,000 m³/day^[66]
• Bushman's River Mouth 1,800 m³/day^[67]
• Lambert's Bay 1,700 m³/day^[68]
• Cannon Rocks 750 m³/day^[69]

Trinidad and Tobago

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago uses desalination to open up more of the island's water supply for drinking purposes. The country's desalination plant, opened in March 2003, is considered to be the first of its kind. It was the largest desalination facility in the Americas, and it processes 28,800,000 US gallons (109,000 m³) of water a day at the price of $2.67 per 1,000 US gallons (3.8 m³).^[70]

This plant will be located at Trinidad's Point Lisas Industrial Estate, a park of more than 12 companies in various manufacturing and processing functions, and it will allow for easy access to water for both factories and residents in the country.^[71]

United Arab Emirates

The Jebel Ali desalination plant in Dubai, a dual-purpose facility, uses multistage flash distillation and is capable of producing 300 million cubic meters of water per year.

• Kalba 15,000 m³/day built for Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority completed 2010 (operator CH2MHill)^[72]
• Khor Fakkan 22,500 m³/day (operator CH2MHill)
• Ghalilah RAK 68,000 m³/day (operator AQUATECH)
• Hamriyah 90,000 m³/day (operator AQUA Engineering)
• Taweelah A1 Power and Desalination Plant has an output 385,000,000 L (85,000,000 imp gal; 102,000,000 US gal) per day of clean water.
• Al Zawrah 27,000 m³/day (operator Aqua Engineering)
• Layyah I 22,500 m³/day (operator CH2MHill)
• Emayil & Saydiat Island ≈20,000 m³/day (operator Aqua EPC)
• Umm Al Nar Desalination Plant has an output of 394,000,000 L (87,000,000 imp gal; 104,000,000 US gal)/day.
• Al Yasat Al Soghrih Island 2M gallons per day (GPD) or 9,000 m³/day
• Fujairah F2 is to be completed by July 2010 will have a water production capacity of 492,000,000 L (108,000,000 imp gal; 130,000,000 US gal) per day.^[73]
• A seawater greenhouse was constructed on Al-Aryam Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates in 2000.

United Kingdom

The first large-scale plant in the United Kingdom, the Thames Water Desalination Plant, was built in Beckton, east London for Thames Water by Acciona Agua.^[74]

Jersey

The desalination plant located near La Rosière, Corbiere, Jersey, is operated by Jersey Water. Built in 1970 in an abandoned quarry, it was the first in the British Isles.

The original plant used a multistage flash (MSF) distillation process, whereby seawater was boiled under vacuum, evaporated and condensed into a freshwater distillate. In 1997, the MSF plant reached the end of its operational life and was replaced with a modern reverse osmosis plant.

Its maximum power demand is 1,750 kW, and the output capacity is 6,000 cubic meters per day. Specific energy consumption is 6.8 kWh/m³.^[75]

United States

Texas

There are a dozen different desalination projects in the state of Texas, both for desalinating groundwater and desalinating seawater from the Gulf of Mexico.^[76][77]

• El Paso: Brackish groundwater has been treated at the El Paso, Texas, plant since around 2004. It produces 27,500,000 US gallons (104,000,000 l; 22,900,000 imp gal) of fresh water daily (about 25% of total freshwater deliveries) by reverse osmosis.^[78] The plant's water cost—largely representing the cost of energy—is about 2.1 times higher than ordinary groundwater production. On average, the plant produces 3.5 million gallons per day (about 11 acre-feet) at an average production cost of $489 per acre-foot.^[79]

California

California has 17 desalination plants in the works, either partially constructed or through exploration and planning phases.^[80] The list of locations includes Bay Point, in the Delta, Redwood City, seven in the Santa Cruz / Monterey Bay, Cambria, Oceaneo, Redondo Beach, Huntington Beach, Dana Point, Camp Pendleton, Oceanside and Carlsbad.^[81]

• Carlsbad: The Carlsbad desalination plant was constructed by Poseidon Resources and is the largest desalination plant in the United States when it went online December 14, 2015.^[82] It produces 50 million gallons a day to 110,000 customers throughout San Diego County at a reported cost of one billion dollars.
• Concord: Planned to open in 2020, producing 20 million gallons a day.^[80]
• Monterey County: Sand City, two miles north of Monterey, with a population of 334, is the only city in California completely supplied with water from a desalination plant.
• Santa Barbara: The Charles Meyer Desalination Facility was constructed in Santa Barbara, California, in 1991–92 as a temporary emergency water supply in response to severe drought.^[83][84] While it has a high operating cost, the facility only needs to operate infrequently, allowing Santa Barbara to use its other supplies more extensively.^[85][86] The plant is expected to be re-activated in the summer of 2016.

Florida

RO production train, North Cape Coral RO Plant

In 1977, Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest low pressure reverse osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 15 MGD.^[87]

As of 2012, South Florida has 33 brackish and two seawater desalination plants operating with seven brackish water plants under construction. The brackish and seawater desalination plants have the capacity to produce 245 million gallons of potable water per day.^[88]

• Tampa Bay: The Tampa Bay Water desalination project near Tampa, Florida, was originally a private venture led by Poseidon Resources, but it was delayed by the bankruptcy of Poseidon Resources' successive partners in the venture, Stone & Webster, then Covanta (formerly Ogden) and its principal subcontractor, Hydranautics. Stone & Webster declared bankruptcy June 2000. Covanta and Hydranautics joined in 2001, but Covanta failed to complete the construction bonding, and then the Tampa Bay Water agency purchased the project on May 15, 2002, underwriting the project. Tampa Bay Water then contracted with Covanta Tampa Construction, which produced a project that failed performance tests. After its parent went bankrupt, Covanta also filed for bankruptcy prior to performing renovations that would have satisfied contractual agreements. This resulted in nearly six months of litigation. In 2004, Tampa Bay Water hired a renovation team, American Water/Acciona Aqua, to bring the plant to its original, anticipated design. The plant was deemed fully operational in 2007,^[89] and is designed to run at a maximum capacity of 25 million US gallons (95,000 m³) per day.^[90] The plant can now produce up to 25 million US gallons (95,000 m³) per day when needed.^[91]

Arizona

• Yuma: The desalination plant in Yuma, Arizona, was constructed under authority of the Federal Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act of 1974 to treat saline agricultural return flows from the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and Drainage District into the Colorado River. The treated water is intended for inclusion in water deliveries to Mexico, thereby keeping a like amount of freshwater in Lake Mead, Arizona and Nevada. Construction of the plant was completed in 1992, and it has operated on two occasions since then. The plant has been maintained, but largely not operated due to sufficient freshwater supplies from the upper Colorado River.^[92] An agreement was reached in April 2010 between the Southern Nevada Water Authority, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, the Central Arizona Project, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation to underwrite the cost of running the plant in a year-long pilot project.^[93]

References

1. "ERI Broadens Its Energy Recovery Footprint in North Africa". sec. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
2. "ALGERIA – REVERSE OSMOSIS DESALINATION PLANT". vvsdcn. Retrieved February 26, 2013.
3. "Hydraulique". wilaya-mostaganem.dz.
4. W.E.B. Aruba N.V. – Water Plant. Webaruba.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011. Archived May 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
5. Sundrop Farms Pty Ltd. Sundropfarms.com.au. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
6. Seawater Greenhouse Australia construction time lapse (2010). YouTube. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
7. Seawater Greenhouse Australia on Southern Cross News (2010). YouTube. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
8. AL HIDD IWPP – BAHRAIN at the Wayback Machine (archived October 5, 2009). sidem-desalination.com
9. Al Hidd Desalination Plant. Water Technology. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
10. Durrat Al Bahrain desalination plant. Water Technology. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
11. Construction starts on Durrat Al Bahrain desalination plant. Desalination.biz. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
12. "Copiapó Desalination Plant (Atacama Region, Chile)". ACCIONA. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
13. "The Projects - Thorium Power Canada Inc.".
14. Watts, Jonathan (January 24, 2011). "Can the sea solve China's water crisis?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved April 19, 2011.
15. Larnaca SWRO Water Desalination Plant. Water Technology. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
16. Marangou, V; Savvides, K (2001). "First desalination plant in Cyprus – product water aggresivity and corrosion control1" (PDF). Desalination. 138: 251. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00271-5.
17. "CONSULAQUA – Deutsch – Verfahrens- und anlagentechnische Optimierung Meerwasserentsalzungsanlage". consulaqua.de.
18. AquaGib: Gibraltar – Present Plant. Aquagib.gi. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
19. "GIBRALTAR PROVING PLANT EXCEEDING EXPECTATIONS" (PDF). Retrieved May 29, 2011.
20. "West Bay, Cayman Islands, Caribbean". Consolidated Water. 2011. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
21. "Abel Castillo Water Works, Cayman Islands, Caribbean". Consolidated Water. 2011. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
22. "Britannia Seawater Reverse Osmosis, Cayman Islands, Caribbean". Consolidated Water. 2011. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
23. LCQ5 : Study on desalination. info.gov.hk (January 10, 2007)
24. Pilot Plant Study on Development of Desalination Facilities in Hong Kong. Water Supplies Department, Government of Hong Kong, October 2007, Government of Hong Kong
25. Advisory Committee on the Quality of Water Supplies Minutes of Meeting No. 8. April 1, 2003. Government of Hong Kong
27. Policy Address 2011
28. "Innovative India water plant opens in Madras". BBC News. July 30, 2010.
29. "Minjur desal plant to be inaugurated today". The Times of India. July 31, 2010.
30. "Nemmeli plant brings hope to parched city". The Hindu. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
31. "Iran's installed desalination profile". Global Water Intelligence. July 2005.
32. Sales, Ben (May 30, 2013) With desalination, a once unthinkable water surplus is possible. The Times of Israel
33. Israels desalination plants run at only 70% capacity. The Jerusalem Post
34. Israel is No. 5 on Top 10 Cleantech List in Israel 21c A Focus Beyond. Retrieved December 21, 2009
35. Ashkelon Desalination Plant Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Plant. Water-technology.net. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
36. Sauvetgoichon, B (2007). "Ashkelon desalination plant – A successful challenge". Desalination. 203: 75–81. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.525.
37. Federman, Josef (May 30, 2014). "Israel solves water woes with desalination". Associated Press. Retrieved May 30, 2014.
38. Kershner, Isabel (2015-05-29). "Aided by the Sea, Israel Overcomes an Old Foe: Drought". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2015-05-31.
39. Public-Private Partnership Projects, Accountant General, Ministry of Finance
40. Globes Business and Technology News:"Palmachim desalination plant inaugurates expansion", November 17, 2010
41. Globes Business and Technology News:"Funding agreed for expanding Hadera desalination plant", November 6, 2009
42. IDE Technologies:"World's Largest SWRO Desalination Plant Now Fully Operational", October 21, 2013
43. "Cheap Water from the World's Largest Modern Seawater Desalination Plant | MIT Technology Review". Retrieved 2015-05-31.
44. IDE Technologies: Project: The World's Largest and Most Advanced SWRO Desalination Plant
45. Desalination & Water Reuse:"IDE reported winner of Soreq desalination contract", December 15, 2009
46. Dotan, Daniel (19 July 2016). "Desalination plants ensure water supply until 2025". globes. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
47. Globes Business and Technology News:"Mekorot wins battle to build Ashdod desalination plant", February 22, 2011
48. Erica Spiritos and Clive Lipchin, Desalination in Israel, 2013
49. "Map of Our Global Installations". Energy Recovery. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
50. Seawater Greenhouse wins Tech Awards (2006, Oman & Tenerife). YouTube. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
51. David, Boris. "Beach Wells for Large-Scale Reverse Osmosis Plants: The Sur Case Study" (PDF). Veolia Water. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 24, 2013. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
52. "Second forward osmosis facility completed in Oman". Water World. September 2009.
53. "Modern Water MOD plant begins operation in Oman". Filtration + Separation. November 13, 2009. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
54. "Ras Abu Fontas (RAF) A2 Seawater Desalination Plant".
55. Sasakura, Samsung $1.89bn bid lowest for Saudi plant. Reuters.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
56. "Dow and Saudi Saline Water Conversion Corporation Sign Commercial Agreement for Research Collaboration". DOW. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
57. Map on this page. Saudi Arabian plants. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
58. Picow, Maurice. "Saudi Arabia Opens World's Largest Desalination Plant". Green Prophet. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
59. "High-capacity desalination plant planned in Rabigh". Saudi Gazette. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
60. http://www.marafiq.com.sa/en/operations/opr_prodyan.aspx
61. INSULAR DE AGUAS DE LANZAROTE S.A.. INALSA. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
62. Seawater Greenhouse Pilot Project – Canary Islands (1994). YouTube. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
63. "Visit Mossel Bay – Proud Mossel Bay Salutes Mossel Bay's Desalination Plant". visitmosselbay.co.za.
64. Veolia Environnement (February 22, 2013). "Press | Transnet gets reverse osmosis desalination plant from Veolia Water". veoliawaterst.co.za.
65. Veolia Environnement (May 5, 2010). "Press | VWS ENVIG TO BUILD WATER AUGMENTATION PLANT IN KNYSNA". veoliawaterst.co.za.
66. Veolia Environnement (May 4, 2011). "Press | DESALINATION PLANT WILL BRING WELCOME RELIEF TO DRY SOUTHERN CAPE". veoliawaterst.co.za.
67. Veolia Environnement. "Newsletter Article | VWS South Africa hands over operations of a desalination plant to Eastern Cape municipality". veoliawaterst.co.za.
68. Veolia Environnement (June 18, 2013). "Press | Veolia to build new seawater desalination plant in Lamberts Bay". veoliawaterst.co.za.
69. "Largest desalination plant in South Africa; Karoo, Cacadu District". travelkaroo.co.za. January 1, 2010
70. Ionics to build $120M desalination plant in Trinidad|Boston Business Journal. The Business Journals. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
71. Trinidad Desalination Plant. Waterindustry.org (October 26, 2000). Retrieved March 20, 2011.
72. "SEWA Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant" (PDF). CH2MHill. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
73. Abu Dhabi to Build Three Power and Water Desalination Plants by 2016 to Meet Demand. industrialinfo.com (November 18, 2009). Retrieved March 20, 2011.
74. Thames Water Desalination Plant. water-technology.net. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
75. "raw water processing plant". Jerseywater.je. July 9, 1999. Retrieved February 19, 2012.
76. Desalination Facts. Texas Water Development Board
77. Desalination Projects. Texas Water Development Board
78. El Paso Water Utilities – Public Service Board|Desalination Plant. Epwu.org. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
79. Texas Water Report: Going Deeper for the Solution. Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts. Retrieved February 10, 2013
80. Fagan, Kevin (February 15, 2014). "Desalination plants a pricey option if drought persists". SFGate. San Francisco Chronicle.
81. Fimrite, Peter (May 7, 2015). "Tapping the ocean for drinking water: State lays down the law". SFGate. San Francisco Chronicle.
82. Boxall, Bettina (February 17, 2013). "Seawater desalination plant might be just a drop in the bucket". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
83. "Charles Meyer Desalination Facility". City of Santa Barbara. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
84. Brunhuber, Kim (Apr 29, 2015). "California drought forces Santa Barbara to reopen mothballed desalination plant". CBC News.
85. Covarrubias, Amanda (March 3, 2015). "Santa Barbara working to reactivate mothballed desalination plant". Los Angeles Times.
86. Rogers, Paul (April 7, 2015). "California drought: Santa Barbara looks to ocean desalination for new water; are other cities next?". San Jose Mercury News.
87. 2012 Annual Consumer Report on the Quality of Tap Water. City of Cape Coral
88. "Desalination". sfwmd.gov.
89. Desalination: A Component of the Master Water Plan . tampabaywater.org
90. Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Plant. Tampabaywater.org. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
91. Danielson, Richard (February 16, 2010) Tampa Bay Water stands to get $31 million for reaching milestones at desal plant – St. Petersburg Times. Tampa Bay Times.
92. "Yuma Desalting Plant" U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Retrieved May 1, 2010
93. "A fresh start for Yuma desalting plant" Los Angeles Times, May 1, 2010