European emission standards

Simplified chart showing the progression of European emission standards for Diesel cars.
Simplified chart showing the progression of European emission standards for Petrol cars. Note that until Euro 5, there were no PM limits.

European emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU and EEA member states. The emission standards are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards.

Background

Currently, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), total hydrocarbon (THC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) are regulated for most vehicle types, including cars, trucks (lorries), locomotives, tractors and similar machinery, barges, but excluding seagoing ships and aeroplanes. For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance is determined by running the engine at a standardised test cycle. Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. No use of specific technologies is mandated to meet the standards, though available technology is considered when setting the standards. New models introduced must meet current or planned standards, but minor lifecycle model revisions may continue to be offered with pre-compliant engines.

In the early 2000s, Australia began harmonising Australian Design Rule certification for new motor vehicle emissions with Euro categories. Euro III was introduced on 1 January 2006 and is progressively being introduced to align with European introduction dates.

Also see the EU-mandated European on-board diagnostics.

CO2 emission

See also: Global warming

Within the European Union, road transport is responsible for about 20% of all CO2 emissions, with passenger cars and vans contributing about 15%.[1][2]

The target fixed at Kyoto Protocol was an 8% reduction of emissions in all sectors of the economy compared to 1990 levels by 2008–12.

Relative CO2 emissions from transport have risen rapidly in recent years, from 21% of the total in 1990 to 28% in 2004,[1][3][4] but currently there are no standards for limits on CO2 emissions from vehicles.

EU transport emissions of CO2 currently account for about 3.5% of total global CO2 emissions.

Obligatory labelling

The purpose of Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 13 December 1999 relating to the availability of consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars[5] is to ensure that information relating to the fuel economy and CO2 emissions of new passenger cars offered for sale or lease in the Community is made available to consumers in order to enable consumers to make an informed choice.

In the United Kingdom, the initial approach was deemed ineffective. The way the information was presented was too complicated for consumers to understand. As a result, car manufacturers in the United Kingdom voluntarily agreed to put a more “consumer-friendly,” colour-coded label displaying CO2 emissions on all new cars beginning in September 2005, with a letter from A (<100 CO2 g/km) to F (186+ CO2 g/km). The goal of the new “green label” is to give consumers clear information about the environmental performance of different vehicles.[6]

Other EU member countries are also in the process of introducing consumer-friendly labels.

Obligatory vehicle CO2 emission limits

EU Regulation No 443/2009 sets an average CO2 emissions target for new passenger cars of 130 grams per kilometre. The target is gradually being phased in between 2012 and 2015. A target of 95 grams per kilometre will apply from 2021.

For light commercial vehicle, an emissions target of 175 g/km applies from 2017, and 147 g/km from 2020.[7]

Toxic emission: stages and legal framework

The stages are typically referred to as Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3, Euro 4, Euro 5 and Euro 6 for Light Duty Vehicle standards. The corresponding series of standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles use Roman, rather than Arabic numerals (Euro I, Euro II, etc.)

The legal framework consists in a series of directives, each amendments to the 1970 Directive 70/220/EEC.[8] The following is a summary list of the standards, when they come into force, what they apply to, and which EU directives provide the definition of the standard.

These limits supersede the original directive on emission limits 70/220/EEC.

The classifications for vehicle category are defined by:[14]

In the area of fuels, the 2001 Biofuels Directive requires that 5.75% of all transport fossil fuels (petrol and diesel) should be replaced by biofuels by 31 December 2010, with an intermediate target of 2% by the end of 2005. However, MEPs have since voted to lower this target in the wake of new scientific evidence about the sustainability of biofuels and the impact on food prices. In a vote in Strasbourg, the European parliament’s environment committee supported a plan to curb the EU target for renewable sources in transport to 4% by 2015. They also said that a thorough review would be required in 2015 before the EU could progress to an 8–10% mark by 2020.

Emission standards for passenger cars

Emission standards for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles are summarised in the following tables. Since the Euro 2 stage, EU regulations introduce different emission limits for diesel and petrol vehicles. Diesels have more stringent CO standards but are allowed higher NOx emissions. Petrol-powered vehicles are exempted from particulate matter (PM) standards through to the Euro 4 stage, but vehicles with direct injection engines are subject to a limit of 0.005 g/km for Euro 5 and Euro 6. A particulate number standard (P) or (PN) has been introduced in 2011 with Euro 5b for diesel engines and in 2014 with Euro 6 for petrol engines.[17][18][19]

All dates listed in the tables refer to new type approvals. The EC Directives also specify a second date—usually one year later—which applies to first registration (entry into service) of existing, previously type-approved vehicle models.

From a technical perspective, European emissions standards do not reflect everyday usage of the vehicle as manufacturers are allowed to lighten the vehicle by removing the back seats, improve aerodynamics by taping over grilles and door handles or reduce the load on the generator by switching off the headlights, the passenger compartment fan or simply disconnecting the alternator which charges the battery.[20]

European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km

Tier Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx PM PN [#/km]
Diesel
Euro 1† July 1992 2.72 (3.16) - - - 0.97 (1.13) 0.14 (0.18) -
Euro 2 January 1996 1.0 - - - 0.7 0.08 -
Euro 3 January 2000 0.64 - - 0.50 0.56 0.05 -
Euro 4 January 2005 0.50 - - 0.25 0.30 0.025 -
Euro 5a September 2009 0.50 - - 0.180 0.230 0.005 -
Euro 5b September 2011 0.50 - - 0.180 0.230 0.005 6×1011
Euro 6 September 2014 0.50 - - 0.080 0.170 0.005 6×1011
Petrol (Gasoline)
Euro 1† July 1992 2.72 (3.16) - - - 0.97 (1.13) - -
Euro 2 January 1996 2.2 - - - 0.5 - -
Euro 3 January 2000 2.3 0.20 - 0.15 - - -
Euro 4 January 2005 1.0 0.10 - 0.08 - - -
Euro 5 September 2009 1.0 0.10 0.068 0.060 - 0.005** -
Euro 6 September 2014 1.0 0.10 0.068 0.060 - 0.005** 6×1011***
* Before Euro 5, passenger vehicles > 2500 kg were type approved as light commercial vehicles N1-I
** Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines
*** 6×1012/km within first three years from Euro 6 effective dates
† Values in parentheses are conformity of production (COP) limits

Emission standards for light commercial vehicles

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles ≤1305  kg reference mass (Category N1-I), g/km

Tier Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx PM P [#/km]
Diesel
Euro 1 October 1994 2.72 - - - 0.97 0.14 -
Euro 2 January 1998 1.0 - - - 0.7 0.08 -
Euro 3 January 2000 0.64 - - 0.50 0.56 0.05 -
Euro 4 January 2005 0.50 - - 0.25 0.30 0.025 -
Euro 5a September 2009 0.500 - - 0.180 0.230 0.005 -
Euro 5b September 2011 0.500 - - 0.180 0.230 0.005 6×1011
Euro 6 September 2014 0.500 - - 0.080 0.170 0.005 6×1011
Petrol (Gasoline)
Euro 1 October 1994 2.72 - - - 0.97 - -
Euro 2 January 1998 2.2 - - - 0.5 - -
Euro 3 January 2000 2.3 0.20 - 0.15 - - -
Euro 4 January 2005 1.0 0.10 - 0.08 - - -
Euro 5 September 2009 1.000 0.100 0.068 0.060 - 0.005* -
Euro 6 September 2014 1.000 0.100 0.068 0.060 - 0.005* 6×1011
* Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1305–1760  kg reference mass (Category N1-II), g/km

Tier Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx PM PN [#/km]
Diesel
Euro 1 October 1994 5.17 - - - 1.4 0.19 -
Euro 2 January 1998 1.25 - - - 1.0 0.12 -
Euro 3 January 2001 0.80 - - 0.65 0.72 0.07 -
Euro 4 January 2006 0.63 - - 0.33 0.39 0.04 -
Euro 5a September 2010 0.630 - - 0.235 0.295 0.005 -
Euro 5b September 2011 0.630 - - 0.235 0.295 0.005 6×1011
Euro 6 September 2015 0.630 - - 0.105 0.195 0.005 6×1011
Petrol (Gasoline)
Euro 1 October 1994 5.17 - - - 1.4 - -
Euro 2 January 1998 4.0 - - - 0.6 - -
Euro 3 January 2001 4.17 0.25 - 0.18 - - -
Euro 4 January 2006 1.81 0.130 - 0.10 - - -
Euro 5 September 2010 1.810 0.130 0.090 0.075 - 0.005* -
Euro 6 September 2015 1.810 0.130 0.090 0.075 - 0.005* 6×1011
* Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles >1760  kg reference mass max 3500 kg. (Category N1-III & N2), g/km

Tier Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx PM PN [#/km]
Diesel
Euro 1 October 1994 6.9 - - - 1.7 0.25 -
Euro 2 January 1998 1.5 - - - 1.2 0.17 -
Euro 3 January 2001 0.95 - - 0.78 0.86 0.10 -
Euro 4 January 2006 0.74 - - 0.39 0.46 0.06 -
Euro 5a September 2010 0.740 - - 0.280 0.350 0.005 -
Euro 5b September 2011 0.740 - - 0.280 0.350 0.005 6×1011
Euro 6 September 2015 0.740 - - 0.125 0.215 0.005 6×1011
Petrol (Gasoline)
Euro 1 October 1994 6.9 - - - 1.7 - -
Euro 2 January 1998 5.0 - - - 0.7 - -
Euro 3 January 2001 5.22 0.29 - 0.21 - - -
Euro 4 January 2006 2.27 0.16 - 0.11 - - -
Euro 5 September 2010 2.270 0.160 0.108 0.082 - 0.005* -
Euro 6 September 2015 2.270 0.160 0.108 0.082 - 0.005* 6×1011
* Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines

Emission standards for trucks and buses

Whereas for passenger cars, the standards are defined by vehicle driving distance, g/km, for lorries (trucks) they are defined by engine energy output, g/kWh, and are therefore in no way comparable. The following table contains a summary of the emission standards and their implementation dates. Dates in the tables refer to new type approvals; the dates for all type approvals are in most cases one year later (EU type approvals are valid longer than one year).

The official category name is heavy-duty diesel engines, which generally includes lorries and buses.

EU Emission Standards for HD Diesel Engines, g/kWh (smoke in m−1)

Tier Date Test cycle CO HC NOx PM Smoke
Euro I 1992, < 85 kW

ECE R-49

 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.612
1992, > 85 kW 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36
Euro II October 1996 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.25
October 1998 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
Euro III October 1999 EEVs only ESC & ELR 1.0 0.25 2.0 0.02 0.15
October 2000

ESC & ELR

 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10
0.13*		 0.8
Euro IV October 2005 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02 0.5
Euro V October 2008 1.5 0.46 2.0 0.02 0.5
Euro VI 31 December 2013[21] 1.5 0.13 0.4 0.01
* for engines of less than 0.75 dm3 swept volume per cylinder and a rated power speed of more than 3,000 per minute. EEV is "Enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle".

Emission standards for large goods vehicles

Euro norm emissions for category N3, EDC, (2000 and up)
Standard Date CO (g/kWh) NOx (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh) PM (g/kWh)
Euro 0 1988–92 12.3 15.8 2.6 NA
Euro I 1992–95 4.9 9.0 1.23 0.40
Euro II 1995–99 4.0 7.0 1.1 0.15
Euro III 1999–2005 2.1 5.0 0.66 0.1
Euro IV 2005–08 1.5 3.5 0.46 0.02
Euro V 2008–12 1.5 2.0 0.46 0.02
Euro norm emissions for (older) ECE R49 cycle
Standard Date CO (g/kWh) NOx (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh) PM (g/kWh)
Euro 0 1988–92 11.2 14.4 2.4 NA
Euro I 1992–95 4.5 8.0 1.1 0.36
Euro II 1995–99 4.0 7.0 1.1 0.15

Enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle

Enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle or EEV is a term used in the European emission standards for the definition of a "clean vehicle" > 3.5 tonne in the category M2 and M3. The standard lies between the levels of Euro V and Euro VI.

Emission standards for non-road mobile machinery

The term non-road mobile machinery (NRMM) is a term used in the European emission standards to control emissions of engines that are not used primarily on public roadways. This definition included off-road vehicles as well as railway vehicles.

European standards for non-road diesel engines harmonize with the US EPA standards, and comprise gradually stringent tiers known as Stage I–IV standards. The Stage I/II was part of the 1997 directive (Directive 97/68/EC). It was implemented in two stages with Stage I implemented in 1999 and Stage II implemented between 2001 and 2004. In 2004, the European Parliament adopted Stage III/IV standards. The Stage III standards were further divided into Stage III A and III B were phased in between 2006 and 2013. Stage IV standards are enforced from 2014.

As of 1 January 2015, EU Member States have to ensure that ships in the Baltic, the North Sea and the English Channel are using fuels with a sulphur content of no more than 0.10%. Higher sulphur contents are still possible, but only if the appropriate exhaust cleaning systems are in place.[22]

Emission test cycle

Just as important as the regulations are the tests needed to ensure adherence to regulations. These are laid out in standardised emission test cycles used to measure emissions performance against the regulatory thresholds applicable to the tested vehicle.

Light duty vehicles

Since the Euro 3 regulations in 2000, performance has been measured using the New European Driving Cycle test (NEDC; also known as MVEG-B), with a "cold start" procedure that eliminates the use of a 40-second engine warm-up period found in the ECE+EUDC test cycle (also known as MVEG-A).[18][23]

Heavy duty vehicles

The two groups of emissions standards for heavy duty vehicles each have different appropriate test requirements. Steady-state testing is used for diesel engines only, while transient testing applies to both diesel and petrol engines.[24]

"Cycle beating" controversy

For the emission standards to deliver real emission reductions it is crucial to use a test cycle that reflects real-world driving style. It was discovered[25] that engine manufacturers would use a so-called defeat device to engage in what was called 'cycle beating' (cheating) to optimise apparent emission performance only during the emissions test cycle, while emissions from typical driving conditions were deliberately left much higher than promised or tested, undermining the standards and public health. The use of a defeat device is expressly forbidden in EU law.[19] In one particular instance, research in diesel car emissions by two German technology institutes found that zero 'real' NOx reductions in public health risk had been achieved despite 13 years of stricter standards (2006 report).[26]

An independent study in 2014 used portable emissions measurement systems to measure NOx emissions during real world driving from fifteen Euro 6 compliant diesel passenger cars. The results showed that NOx emissions were on average as much as seven times higher than the Euro 6 limit. However, some of the vehicles did show reduced emissions, suggesting that real world NOx emission control is possible.[27]

In 2015, the Volkswagen emissions scandal involved revelations that Volkswagen AG had deliberately falsified emission reports by programming engine management unit firmware to detect test conditions, and change emissions controls when under test. The cars thus passed the test, but in real world conditions, emitted up to forty times more NOx emissions than allowed by law.[28] An independent report in September 2015 warned that this extended to "every major car manufacturer",[29] with BMW, and Opel named alongside Volkswagen and its sister company Audi as "the worst culprits",[29] and that approximately 90% of diesel cars "breach emissions regulations".[29] Overlooking the direct responsibility of the companies involved, the authors blamed the violations on a number of factors, including "unrealistic test conditions, a lack of transparency and a number of loopholes in testing protocols".[29]

In 2017, the European Union will introduce testing in real-world conditions called Real Driving Emissions, using portable emissions measurement systems in addition to laboratory tests.[30] The actual limits will use 110% (CF=2.1) "conformity factor" (the difference between the laboratory test and real-world conditions) in 2017, and 50% (CF=1.5) in 2021 for NOx,[31] conformity factor for particles number P being left for further study. Environment organizations critizised the decision as insufficient,[32][33] while ACEA mentions it will be extremely difficult for automobile manufacturers to reach such a limit in such short period of time.[34] In 2015 an ADAC study (ordered by ICCT) of 32 Euro6 cars showed that few complied with on-road emission limits, and LNT/NOx adsorber cars (with about half the market) had the highest emissions.[35] At the end of this study, ICCT was expecting a 100% conformity factor.[36]

NEDC Euro6b not to exceed limit of 80 mg/km NOx will then continue to apply for the WLTC Euro6c tests performed on a dyno while WLTC-RDE will be performed in the middle of the traffic with a PEMS attached at the rear of the car. RDE testing is then far more difficult than the dyno tests. RDE not to exceed limits have then been updated to take into account different test conditions such as PEMS weight (305–533 kg in various ICCT testing[37]), driving in the middle of the traffic, road gradient, etc.

ADAC also performed NOx emission tests with a cycle representative of the real driving environment in the laboratory.[38][39] Among the 69 cars tested:

Since 2012, ADAC performs regular pollutant emission tests [40][41] on a specific cycle in the laboratory duly representing a real driving environment and gives a global notation independent from the type of engine used (petrol, diesel, natural gas, LPG, hybrid, etc.). To get the maximum 50/50 note on this cycle, the car shall emit less than the minimum limit applicable to either petrol or diesel car, that is to say 100 mg HC, 500 mg CO, 60 mg NOx, 3 mg PM and 6×1010 PN. Unlike ambient discourse dirty diesel versus clean petrol cars, the results are much more nuanced and subtle. Some Euro6 diesel cars perform as well as the best hybrid petrol cars; some other recent Euro6 petrol indirect injection cars perform as the worst Euro5 diesel cars; finally some petrol hybrid cars are at the same level as the best Euro5 diesel cars.[42][43]

Electrification

As Europe's requirements for its vehicle fleets head toward a goal of 98 grams of CO2 per kilometer by 2020, Christian Maloney of the German office of consulting group McKinsey & Co. says the only way the automakers can get there and make money is with plug-in vehicles.[44][45]

Many EU member states have responded to this problem by exploring the possibility of including electric vehicle-related infrastructure into their existing road traffic system, with some even having begun implementation. The UK has begun its "plugged-in-places" scheme which sees funding go to several areas across the UK in order to create a network of charging points for electric vehicles.[46]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 "European Commission plans legislative framework to ensure the EU meets its target for cutting CO2 emissions from cars. Ref: IP/07/155 07/02/2007". Europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  2. ↑ "Road transport: Reducing CO2 emissions from vehicles". European Commission. Retrieved 2015-10-09.
  3. ↑ Mulvey, Stephen (2007-02-07). "7 February 2007, EU car CO2 fight only beginning. by Stephen Mulvey". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  4. ↑ Suellentrop, Chris (2013-06-29). "International Herald Tribune. EU to compromise on auto emissions - by Dan Bilefsky, Published: February 6, 2007". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
  5. ↑ "Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 1999 relating to the availability of consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  6. ↑ "Resources for the Future, Resources Magazine, Weathervane, One Car At A Time". Rff.org. 2006-01-10. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  7. ↑ International Council on Clean Transportation (January 2014). "EU CO2 standards for passenger cars and light-commercial vehicles". Retrieved 2014-02-05.
  8. ↑ "European Commission > Enterprise and Industry > Sectors > Automotive > Reference documents > Directives and regulations > Directive 70/220/EEC". Ec.europa.eu. 2010-08-31. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  9. ↑ "91/441/EEC Council Directive 91/441/EEC of 26 June 1991 amending Directive 70/220/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  10. 1 2 "Directive 2002/51/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 July 2002 on the reduction of the level of pollutant emissions from two- and three-wheel motor vehicles and amending Directive 97/24/EC". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  11. ↑ "Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  12. ↑ "Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2007 on type approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  13. ↑ "Commission Regulation (EU) No 459/2012 of 29 May 2012 amending Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6)". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2012-06-01.
  14. ↑ "EUROPA > Summaries of EU legislation > Internal market > Single Market for Goods > Motor vehicles > Technical harmonisation for motor vehicles". Europa.eu. 2010-10-29. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  15. ↑ "Council Directive 70/156/EEC of 6 February 1970 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the type-approval of motor vehicles and their trailers". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  16. ↑ "Commission Directive 2001/116/EC of 20 December 2001 adapting to technical progress Council Directive 70/156/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the type-approval of motor vehicles and their trailers". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  17. ↑ Macaudière, Pierre; Matthess, Nils (January 2013). "Élimination des particule" (PDF) (Press release). PSA Peugeot Citroen. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
  18. 1 2 "Emission Standards » European Union » Cars and Light Trucks". DieselNet. January 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
  19. 1 2 "Regulation (EC) No 715/2007". The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. 2007-06-20. pp. 5–9. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
  20. ↑ "Volkswagen Test Rigging Follows a Long Auto Industry Pattern". NY Times. 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
  21. ↑ "COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 582/2011 (Euro VI), date is for new registrations". Retrieved 2013-07-15.
  22. ↑ "Transport & Environment - Emissions from Maritime Transport". European Commission. 2015-02-16. Retrieved 2015-02-28.
  23. ↑ "Emission Test Cycles: ECE 15 + EUDC / NEDC". DieselNet. July 2013. Retrieved 2015-09-28.
  24. ↑ "Emission Standards » European Union » Heavy-Duty Truck and Bus Engines". DieselNet. September 2012. Retrieved 2015-09-28.
  25. ↑ "Don't Breathe Here: Tackling air pollution from vehicles". Transport Environment. 2015-09-14. Retrieved 2015-10-13.
  26. ↑ "Transport Environment.org Transport & Environment, Bulletin - News from the European Federation for Transport and Environment, No 146, March 2006, WHO adds pressure for stricter Euro-5 standards" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  27. ↑ "Real-world exhaust emissions from modern diesel cars". International Council on Clean Transportation. 2014-10-11. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
  28. ↑ Ewing, Jack; Davenport, Coral (2015-09-20). "Volkswagen to Stop Sales of Diesel Cars Involved in Recall". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-09-21.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Kirk, Ashley (2015-09-22). "Volkswagen emissions scandal: Which other cars fail to meet pollution safety limits?". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
  30. ↑ "Real Driving Emissions 2015". Real Driving Emissions. 2015. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
  31. ↑ "European Commission welcomes Member States' agreement on robust testing of air pollution emissions by cars" (Press release). European Commission. 2015-10-28. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
  32. ↑ Bennett, Jon (2015-10-28). "Diesel: Shocking new rules would allow twice the pollution [3026]". ClientEarth. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
  33. ↑ "Governments double and delay air pollution limits for diesel cars". transportenvironment.org. 2015-10-28. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
  34. ↑ "Auto industry reacts to new real driving emissions testing standards". 2015-10-30.
  35. ↑ Yang, Liuhanzi; Franco, Vicente; Campestrini, Alex; German, John; Mock, Peter (2015-09-03). "NOx control technologies for Euro 6 diesel passenger cars". The International Council on Clean Transportation. Retrieved 2015-11-07.
  36. ↑ "ICCT expected conformity factor" (PDF). September 2015. p. 20 (PDF page 27).
  37. ↑ "PEMS Weight" (PDF). p. 11 (PDF page 27, table 3.2).
  38. ↑ "ADAC NOx Tests concerning 69 Euro6 Diesel cars" (PDF).
  39. ↑ "ADAC NOX tests on 69 Euro6 Diesel cars shown in pictures by AutoBild".
  40. ↑ "English version of ADAC pollutant tests procedure" (PDF).
  41. ↑ "Original ADAC Emissions Tests procedure" (PDF) (in German).
  42. ↑ "English version of ADAC Emissions tests concerning Euro5 & Euro6 cars".
  43. ↑ "Original ADAC emissions tests concerning Euro5 & Euro6 cars" (in German).
  44. ↑ "The California Cars Initiative. The Ultimate Posting on Plug-In Hybrid Developments: Sep 22, 2009". Calcars.org. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  45. ↑ "03 Sep 2009 McKinsey: EU CO2 Regs Are a Death Sentence to Car Makers - But There's a Solution ... SYNOPSIS: Consultants McKinsey in Germany says there is only one way for car makers to reach the EU's ambitious CO2 targets: by selling lots of electric cars". Evworld.com. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  46. ↑ "Recharging infrastructure". Department for Transport. Retrieved 2011-12-22.

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