Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[2][3][4] In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs).
Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no local air pollution. They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode. Despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. The stock of plug-in electric cars represented just 0.1% of the one billion cars on the world's roads by the end of 2015.[5]
As of September 2016, plug-in electric vehicles are more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery packs. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and, in the case of all-electric vehicles, drivers' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars. Plug-in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks. Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all-electric range.
As of September 2016, there are about 70 models of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world. Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 1.5 million unit milestone in May 2016.[6] Global sales of pure electric cars and vans achieved the 1 million milestone in September 2016.[7] The Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car in history, with global sales of almost 240,000 units, followed by the Tesla Model S with more than 145,000 units sold worldwide, both through September 2016.[8][9][10] Ranking next are the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of about 117,300 units, and the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with about 107,400 units delivered, both through June 2016.[1]
As of September 2016, cumulative sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles by country are led by the United States and China, both with about 520,000 plug-in passenger cars sold.[11][12] Japan is the world's third largest plug-in car market with about 145,000 plug-ins sold through September 2016.[13] About 570,000 light-duty plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe up until September 2016, representing almost a third of global sales, and making the continent the world's largest light-duty plug-in regional market.[11] As of September 2016, sales in the European light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by Norway with over 121,300 units, followed by France with over 100,000 units registered by October 2016, and the Netherlands with almost 98,300.[14][15][16] China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric all-electric buses, and plug-in commercial and sanitation trucks. The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China totaled more than 733,000 units through September 2016.[11] As of December 2015, China was the world's largest plug-in electric bus market with a stock of almost 173,000 vehicles.[17]
Terminology
Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion.[2][3] Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV)[3] and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.[18]
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[2][3] Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.[2][3]
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range.[19][20] In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.[21] While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobiles or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters, motorcycles, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, light trucks or light commercial vehicles, buses, trucks or lorries, and military vehicles.[22]
Battery electric vehicles
A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion.[3][23] BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.[3]
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all-electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER).[24][25]
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source.[3][26] A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.[26][27][28]
Aftermarket conversions
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.[29][30][31]
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.[29]
New energy vehicles
In China the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles.[32]
Advantages
Lower operating and maintenance costs
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.[33][34] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.[33]
In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per kWh,[36] the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon.[33] As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous.[33]
According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile. The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6 cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with 11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile. The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi (160 km), the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.[37]
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[33][34]
The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to its official ratings for fuel economy (miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in the case of plug-in electric vehicles) for series production all-electric passenger vehicles rated by the EPA as of November 2016,[38][39] versus EPA rated most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid with long distance range (Chevrolet Volt – second generation), gasoline-electric hybrid car (Toyota Prius Eco - fourth generation),[40][41][42] and EPA's average new 2016 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg-US (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg-imp).[38][40]
| Comparison of fuel efficiency and costs for all the electric cars rated by the EPA for the U.S. market as of November 2016 against EPA rated most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid, hybrid electric vehicle and 2016 average gasoline-powered car in the U.S. (Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the Monroney label)[38][39][43] | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Model year |
EPA rated Combined fuel economy |
EPA rated City fuel economy |
EPA rated Highway fuel economy |
Cost to drive 25 miles (40 km) |
Annual fuel cost |
Notes |
| Hyundai Ioniq Electric[39][44] | 2017 | 136 mpg-e (25 kW·h/100 mi 15.7 kW·h/100 km) | 150 mpg-e (22 kW·h/100 mi 14 kW·h/100 km) | 122 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi 17.5 kW·h/100 km) | $0.81 | $500 | (1) (4) |
| BMW i3 (60 A·h)[45][46] | 2014/15/16 | 124 mpg-e (27 kW·h/100 mi 17.2 kW·h/100 km) | 137 mpg-e (25 kW·h/100 mi 15.6 kW·h/100 km) | 111 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi 19.3 kW·h/100 km) | $0.88 | $550 | (1) (3) (4) (5) |
| Scion iQ EV[47] | 2013 | 121 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi 17.7 kW·h/100 km) | 138 mpg-e (24 kW·h/100 mi 15.5 kW·h/100 km) | 105 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi 20.4 kW·h/100 km) | $0.91 | $550 | (1) |
| Chevrolet Bolt EV[48] | 2017 | 119 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi 17.7 kW·h/100 km) | 128 mpg-e (16.7 kW·h/100 km) | 110 mpg-e (19 kW·h/100 km) | $0.91 | $550 | |
| Chevrolet Spark EV[49] | 2014/15/16 | 119 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi 18.0 kW·h/100 km) | 128 mpg-e (26 kW·h/100 mi 16.7 kW·h/100 km) | 109 mpg-e (31 kW·h/100 mi 19.6 kW·h/100 km) | $0.91 | $550 | (1) |
| BMW i3 (94 A·h)[45] | 2017 | 118 mpg-e (29 kW·h/100 mi 18.1 kW·h/100 km) | 129 mpg-e (16.6 kW·h/100 km) | 106 mpg-e (20.2 kW·h/100 km) | $0.94 | $550 | (1) |
| Honda Fit EV[50] | 2013/14 | 118 mpg-e (29 kW·h/100 mi 18.1 kW·h/100 km) | 132 mpg-e (26 kW·h/100 mi 16.2 kW·h/100 km) | 105 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi 20.4 kW·h/100 km) | $0.94 | $550 | (1) |
| Fiat 500e[51] | 2013/14/15 | 116 mpg-e (29 kW·h/100 mi 18.4 kW·h/100 km) | 122 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi 17.5 kW·h/100 km) | 108 mpg-e (31 kW·h/100 mi 19.8 kW·h/100 km) | $0.95 | $550 | (1) |
| Volkswagen e-Golf[52] | 2015/16 | 116 mpg-e (29 kW·h/100 mi 18.4 kW·h/100 km) | 126 mpg-e (27 kW·h/100 mi; 17.0 kW·h/100 km) | 105 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 20.4 kW·h/100 km) | $0.95 | $550 | (1) |
| Nissan Leaf (24 kW-hr)[53] | 2013/14/15/16 | 114 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi; 18.7 kW·h/100 km) | 126 mpg-e (27 kW·h/100 mi; 17.0 kW·h/100 km) | 101 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | $0.96 | $600 | (1) (6) |
| Mitsubishi i[54] | 2012/13/14/16 | 112 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi; 19.1 kW·h/100 km) | 126 mpg-e (27 kW·h/100 mi; 17.0 kW·h/100 km) | 99 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | $0.98 | $600 | (1) |
| Nissan Leaf (30 kW-hr)[53] | 2016 | 112 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi; 19.1 kW·h/100 km) | 124 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi; 17.2 kW·h/100 km) | 101 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | $0.97 | $600 | (1) |
| Fiat 500e[55] | 2016 | 112 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi; 19.1 kW·h/100 km) | 121 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi; 17.7 kW·h/100 km) | 103 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | $0.97 | $600 | (1) |
| Smart electric drive[56] | 2013/14/15/16 | 107 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 20.0 kW·h/100 km) | 122 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi; 17.5 kW·h/100 km) | 93 mpg-e (36 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | $1.02 | $600 | (1) (7) |
| Kia Soul EV[57] | 2015/16 | 105 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 20.4 kW·h/100 km) | 120 mpg-e (29 kW·h/100 mi; 18 kW·h/100 km) | 92 mpg-e (37 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | $1.04 | $600 | (1) |
| Ford Focus Electric[58] | 2012/13/14/15/16 | 105 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 20.4 kW·h/100 km) | 110 mpg-e (31 kW·h/100 mi; 19 kW·h/100 km) | 99 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | $1.04 | $600 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 70D[38][59] | 2015/16 | 101 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | 101 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | 102 mpg-e (33 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | $1.07 | $650 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 85D[38][60] | 2015/16 | 100 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | 95 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | 106 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 20.2 kWh/100 km) | $1.10 | $650 | (1) (8) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 90D[38][59] | 2015/16 | 100 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 21 kW·h/100 km) | 95 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | 106 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 20.2 kW·h/100 km) | $1.10 | $650 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S (60 kW·h)[38][59] | 2014/15/16 | 95 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | 94 mpg-e (36 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | 97 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | $1.14 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - P85D[38][60] | 2015/16 | 93 mpg-e (36 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | 89 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 98 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | $1.17 | $700 | (1) (8) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - P90D[38][59] | 2015/16 | 93 mpg-e (36 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | 89 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 98 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) | $1.17 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model X AWD – 90D[61] | 2016 | 92 mpg-e (34 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | 90 mpg-e (37 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 94 mpg-e (32 kW·h/100 mi; 23 kW·h/100 km) | $1.20 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model X AWD – P90D[61] | 2016 | 89 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 89 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 90 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | $1.23 | $750 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S (85 kW·h)[62] | 2012/13/14/15 | 89 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 88 mpg-e (38 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | 90 mpg-e (37 kW·h/100 mi; 24 kW·h/100 km) | $1.23 | $750 | (1) |
| Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive[63] | 2014/15/16 | 84 mpg-e (40 kW·h/100 mi; 25 kW·h/100 km) | 85 mpg-e (40 kW·h/100 mi; 25 kW·h/100 km) | 83 mpg-e (41 kW·h/100 mi; 26 kW·h/100 km) | $1.30 | $800 | (1) |
| Toyota RAV4 EV[64] | 2012/13/14 | 76 mpg-e (44 kW·h/100 mi; 28 kW·h/100 km) | 78 mpg-e (43 kW·h/100 mi; 27 kW·h/100 km) | 74 mpg-e (46 kW·h/100 mi; 29 kW·h/100 km) | $1.43 | $850 | (1) |
| BYD e6[38][65] | 2012/13/14/15/16 | 63 mpg-e (54 kW·h/100 mi; 34 kW·h/100 km) | 61 mpg-e (55 kW·h/100 mi; 35 kW·h/100 km) | 65 mpg-e (52 kW·h/100 mi; 33 kW·h/100 km) | $1.76 | $1,050 | (1) |
| Second gen Chevrolet Volt[38][66][67] Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) Electricity only/ gasoline only | 2016 | 106 mpg-e (31 kW·h/100 mi; 20.2 kW·h/100 km) 42 mpg | 113 mpg-e (30 kW·h/100 mi; 18.9 kW·h/100 km) 43 mpg | 99 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi; 22 kW·h/100 km) 42 mpg | $1.01/$1.23 | $650 | (1) (2) (9) |
| 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (4th gen)[41] Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) Gasoline-electric hybrid | 2016 | 56 mpg | 58 mpg | 53 mpg | $0.92 | $550 | (2) (10) |
| Ford Fusion AWD A-S6 2.0L[38][68] Gasoline-powered (Average new vehicle) | 2016 | 25 mpg | 22 mpg | 31 mpg | $2.06 | $1,250 | (2) (11) |
| Notes: All estimated fuel costs based on 15,000 miles (24,000 km) annual driving, 45% highway and 55% city (1) Values rounded to the nearest $50. Electricity cost of $0.13/kW·h (as of 18 November 2016). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW·h. | |||||||
The following table compares EPA's estimated out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of serial production plug-in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA as of October 2016 expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e),[71] versus the most fuel efficient gasoline-electric hybrid car, the 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (fourth generation), rated 56 mpg-US (4.2 L/100 km; 67 mpg-imp), and EPA's average new 2016 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg-US (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg-imp).[71][72][73] The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug-in hybrids in all-electric mode expressed as KWh/100 mile, the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010.[74]
| Comparison of out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy for plug-in hybrid electric cars rated by EPA as of October 2016 with MPGe and conventional MPG(1) (as displayed in the Monroney label and the US DoE fueleconomy.gov website) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Year model | Operating mode (EV range) | EPA rated Combined fuel economy | EPA rated city/highway fuel economy | Fuel cost to drive 25 miles | Annual fuel cost(1) (15,000 mi) | Notes | |
| Toyota Prius Prime [75] | 2017 | Electricity (25 mi) | 133 mpg-e (25.9 kW·h/100 mi) | - | - | - | The Prius Prime is the most energy-efficient vehicle with a gasoline engine in EV mode. The Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode in more situations.[76] The combined gasoline/electricity rating is not available yet. | |
| Gasoline only | 54 mpg | 55 mpg/ 53 mpg | - | |||||
| BMW i3 REx (60 A·h)[77][78] | 2014 2015 2016 | Electricity only (72 mi) | 117 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi) | 97 mpg-e (35 kW·h/100 mi)/ 79 mpg-e (44 kW·h/100 mi) | $0.94 | $650 | The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx). The 2014/16 i3 REx is the most fuel efficient EPA-certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine with a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 88 mpg-e (city 97 mpg-e/hwy 79 mpg-e).[79][80] | |
| Gasoline only (78 mi) | 39 mpg | 41 mpg/ 37 mpg | $1.72 | |||||
| Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid[81] | 2014 | Electricity and gasoline (13 mi) | 115mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.03 | $650 | The 2014 Accord is the most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid in blended EV mode with a rating of 115 mpg-e. The Accord has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 57 mpg-e.[82] | |
| Gasoline only | 46 mpg | 47 mpg/ 46 mpg | $1.11 | |||||
| BMW i3 REx (94 A·h)[45] | 2017 | Electricity only (97 mi) | 111 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | - | - | $650 | The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx). | |
| Gasoline only (83 mi) | 35 mpg | - | - | |||||
| Chevrolet Volt (2nd gen)[83][84] | 2016 2017 | Electricity only (53 mi) | 106 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi) | 113 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi)/ 99 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | $1.01 | $650 | The 2016 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 77 mpg-e (city 82 mpg-e/hwy 72 mpg-e).[79] Regular gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 42 mpg | 43 mpg/ 42 mpg | $1.21 | |||||
| Hyundai Sonata PHEV[85] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (27 mi) | 99mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.19 | $700 | During the first 27 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 27 mi.[85] | |
| Gasoline only | 40 mpg | - | $1.28 | |||||
| Chevrolet Volt (1st gen)[86][87] | 2013 2014 2015 | Electricity only (38 mi) | 98 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.01 | $650 | The 2013/15 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 62 mpg-e (city 63 mpg-e/hwy 61 mpg-e).[79] Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg/ 40 mpg | $1.21 | |||||
| Ford Fusion Energi[88] | 2017 | Electricity and gasoline (22 mi) | 97 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | $1.14 | $700 | The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 21 mi.[88] | |
| Gasoline only | 42 mpg | - | $1.21 | |||||
| Toyota Prius PHV[89] | 2012 2013 2014 2015 | Electricity and gasoline (11 mi) | 95 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi plus 0.2 gallons/100 mi) | - | $1.03 | $600 | After the first 11 miles the car functions like a regular Prius hybrid The 2012/15 Prius has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 58 mpg-e (city 59 mpg-e/hwy 56 mpg-e).[79] | |
| Gasoline only | 50 mpg | 51 mpg/ 49 mpg | $1.02 | |||||
| Chevrolet Volt[90] | 2011 2012 | Electricity only | 94 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi)/ 93 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi) | $1.17 | $800 | Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg/ 40 mpg | $1.70 | |||||
| Ford C-Max Energi[91] Ford Fusion Energi[91] | 2013 2014 2015 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (20 mi) | 88 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (36 kW·h/100 mi)/ 81 mpg-e (42 kW·h/100 mi) | $1.25 | $750 | The Energi did not use any gasoline for the first 20 miles in EPA tests, but depending on the driving style, the car may use both gasoline and electricity during EV mode. The Energi models have a combined EV/hybrid operation rating of 51 mpg-e (city 55 mpg-e/hwy 46 mpg-e).[79] | |
| Gasoline only | 38 mpg | 40 mpg/ 36 mpg | $1.34 | |||||
| Audi A3 e-tron ultra[92] | 2016 | Electricity only (17 mi) | 86 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.37 | $900 | During the first 17 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 17 mi.[92] | |
| Gasoline only | 39 mpg | - | $1.61 | |||||
| Cadillac ELR[93] | 2014 2015 | Electricity only (37 mi) | 82 mpg-e (41 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.33 | $900 | The 2014/15 ELR has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 54 mpg-e (city 54 mpg-e/hwy 55 mpg-e).[79] | |
| Gasoline only | 33 mpg | 31 mpg/ 35 mpg | $1.90 | |||||
| Audi A3 e-tron[92] | 2016 | Electricity only (16 mi) | 83 mpg-e (40 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.49 | $950 | During the first 16 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 16 mi.[92] | |
| Gasoline only | 35 mpg | - | $1.79 | |||||
| BMW i8[77][94] | 2014 2015 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (15 mi) | 76 mpg-e (43 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.77 | $1,150 | The i8 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 0.1 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi) The i8 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 37 mpg-e.[82] | |
| Gasoline only | 28 mpg | 28 mpg/ 29 mpg | $2.24 | |||||
| BMW 330e[95] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (14 mi) | 72 mpg-e (47 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.74 | $1,050 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.[95] Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 31 mpg | - | $2.02 | |||||
| Porsche 918 Spyder[77][96] | 2015 | Electricity only (12 mi) | 67 mpg-e (50 kWh/100 mi) | - | $1.62 | $1,500 | Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 22 mpg | 20 mpg/ 24 mpg | $2.85 | |||||
| BMW 740e iPerformance[97] | 2017 | Electricity only (14 mi) | 64 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.03 | $1,350 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.[97] | |
| Gasoline only | 27 mpg | - | $2.48 | |||||
| BMW X5 xDrive40e[98] | 2016 | Electricity only (14 mi) | 56 mpg-e (59 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.23 | $1,450 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.[98] | |
| Gasoline only | 24 mpg | - | $2.61 | |||||
| Mercedes-Benz S 500 e[99] | 2015 | Electricity and gasoline (14 mi) | 58 mpg-e (59 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.13 | $1,350 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 12 mi.[99] Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 26 mpg | - | $2.41 | |||||
| Fisker Karma[100] | 2012 | Electricity only (33 mi) | 54 mpg-e (62 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.02 | $1,450 | Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 20 mpg | 20 mpg/ 21 mpg | $3.14 | |||||
| Volvo XC90 T8[101] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (14 mi) | 53 mpg-e (58 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.19 | $1,400 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 13 mi.[101] Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 25 mpg | - | $2.51 | |||||
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid[102] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (16 mi) | 51 mpg-e (51 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.15 | $1,350 | The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 23 mpg/ 29 mpg | $2.51 | |||||
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid[102] | 2014 2015 | Electricity and gasoline (16 mi) | 50 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.18 | $1,400 | The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi The S E-Hybrid has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 31 mpg-e.[82] | |
| Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 23 mpg/ 29 mpg | $2.51 | |||||
| Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid[77][103] | 2015 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (14 mi) | 47 mpg-e (69 kWh/100 mi) | - | $2.24 | $1,550 | Premium gasoline. | |
| Gasoline only | 22 mpg | 21 mpg/ 24 mpg | $2.85 | |||||
| McLaren P1[77][104] | 2014 2015 | Electricity and gasoline (19 mi) | 18 mpg-e (25 kWh/100 mi) | - | $3.79 | $2,200 | The P1 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 4.8 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi)[104] The P1 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 17 mpg-e.[82] | |
| Gasoline only | 17 mpg | 16 mpg/ 20 mpg | $3.69 | |||||
| 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (4th gen)[73] | 2016 | Gasoline-electric hybrid | 56 mpg | 58 mpg/ 53 mpg | $0.91 | $550 | Most fuel efficient hybrid electric car.[71] | |
| Ford Fusion AWD 2.0L[71][68] (Average new vehicle) | 2016 | Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 22 mpg/ 31 mpg | $2.04 | $1,200 | Other 2016 MY cars achieving 25 mpg combined city/hwy include the Honda Accord 3.5L, Toyota Camry 3.5L and Toyota RAV4 2.5L.[71][68] | |
| Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. Electricity cost of US$0.13/kWh, premium gasoline price of US$2.51 per gallon (used by the 2015 Volt, i3 REx, ELR, i8, Mercedes S500e, Karma and all Porsche models), and regular gasoline price of US$2.04 per gallon (as of 18 December 2015). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kWh. | ||||||||
The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States. The analysis is based on a plug-in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3.4 miles per kW-hr (like the Mitsubishi i MiEV) and a gasoline-powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg-imp) (like the 2012 Fiat 500). The EEI estimated that operating a plug-in would have had an equivalent cost of around US$1.50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and around US$1.00 a gallon since the late 1990s. In contrast, the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations, costing more than US$3.50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis, then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US$1.50 during 1999 and 2001, only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US$4.00 before the beginning of the 2007–2009 financial crisis, by early 2012 has fluctuated around US$3.50. The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric-gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon.[105][106]
Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[34] In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[2][34] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles.[34][107] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[2]
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal.[34][108] However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.[34]
Carbon footprint during production
- Ricardo
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider.[109] The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
| Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies[109] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Type of vehicle (powertrain) | Estimated emissions in production (tonnes CO2e) | Estimated lifecycle emissions (tonnes CO2e) | Percentage of
emissions |
| Standard gasoline vehicle | 5.6 | 24 | 23% |
| Hybrid electric vehicle | 6.5 | 21 | 31% |
| Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle | 6.7 | 19 | 35% |
| Battery electric vehicle | 8.8 | 19 | 46% |
| Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150,000 km (93,000 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. | |||
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.[109]
- Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study found that CO
2 emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%, offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime.[110]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.
- Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving. For the first time, the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[111][112]
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.[111]
In order to account for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kWh in California to 986 g CO2/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kWh.[111]
| Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market[111] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Overall fuel economy (mpg-e) | Utility factor(2) (share EV miles) | Tailpipe CO2 (g/mi) | Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2 | ||
| Low (g/mi) | Avg (g/mi) | High (g/mi) | ||||
| BMW i3 | 124 | 1 | 0 | 93 | 175 | 266 |
| Chevrolet Spark EV | 119 | 1 | 0 | 97 | 181 | 276 |
| Honda Fit EV | 118 | 1 | 0 | 99 | 185 | 281 |
| Fiat 500e | 116 | 1 | 0 | 101 | 189 | 288 |
| Nissan Leaf | 114 | 1 | 0 | 104 | 194 | 296 |
| Mitsubishi i | 112 | 1 | 0 | 104 | 195 | 296 |
| Smart electric drive | 107 | 1 | 0 | 109 | 204 | 311 |
| Ford Focus Electric | 105 | 1 | 0 | 111 | 208 | 316 |
| Tesla Model S (60 kWh) | 95 | 1 | 0 | 122 | 229 | 348 |
| Tesla Model S (85 kWh) | 89 | 1 | 0 | 131 | 246 | 374 |
| BMW i3 REx(3) | 88 | 0.83 | 40 | 134 | 207 | 288 |
| Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED | 84 | 1 | 0 | 138 | 259 | 394 |
| Toyota RAV4 EV | 76 | 1 | 0 | 153 | 287 | 436 |
| BYD e6 | 63 | 1 | 0 | 187 | 350 | 532 |
| Chevrolet Volt | 62 | 0.66 | 81 | 180 | 249 | 326 |
| Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid | 58 | 0.29 | 133 | 195 | 221 | 249 |
| Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid | 57 | 0.33 | 130 | 196 | 225 | 257 |
| Cadillac ELR | 54 | 0.65 | 91 | 206 | 286 | 377 |
| Ford C-Max Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| Ford Fusion Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| BMW i8 | 37 | 0.37 | 198 | 303 | 351 | 404 |
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid | 31 | 0.39 | 206 | 328 | 389 | 457 |
| McLaren P1 | 17 | 0.43 | 463 | 617 | 650 | 687 |
| Average MY 2014 gasoline car | 24.2 | 0 | 367 | 400 | 400 | 400 |
| Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[111][38] | ||||||
- Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg-imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).[113][114]
The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The UCS also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg-US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg-imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg-US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg-imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus.[114][115][116] The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg-US (7.1 L/100 km).[113]
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.33 kWh per mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg-US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg-US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg-US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg-US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg-imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.[117][118]
In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg-US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.[119][120]
- National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[121][122] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The marginal analysis, applied to plug-in electric vehicles, found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand.[122]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km for an electric car and 40 g CO2/km for a petrol car. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg-US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg-imp) petrol car.[123][124]
The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2/km, which is equivalent to a 220 mpg-US (1.1 L/100 km; 260 mpg-imp) petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.[123][124][125]
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car:
| Country comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars and emissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car[123][125] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per electric car expressed in (CO2e/km) | Power source | PEV well-to-wheels emissions equivalent in terms of mpg US of petrol-powered car | Equivalent petrol car |
 Sweden | 81 | Low carbon | 159 mpg-US (1.48 L/100 km) | Hybrid multiples |
 France | 93 | 123 mpg-US (1.91 L/100 km) | ||
 Canada | 115 | Fossil light | 87 mpg-US (2.7 L/100 km) | Beyond hybrid |
 Spain | 146 | 61 mpg-US (3.9 L/100 km) | ||
 Japan | 175 | Broad mix | 48 mpg-US (4.9 L/100 km) | New hybrid |
 Germany | 179 | 47 mpg-US (5.0 L/100 km) | ||
 United Kingdom | 189 | 44 mpg-US (5.3 L/100 km) | ||
 United States | 202 | Fossil heavy | 40 mpg-US (5.9 L/100 km) | Efficient petrol |
 Mexico | 203 | 40 mpg-US (5.9 L/100 km) | ||
 China | 258 | Coal-based | 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km) | Average petrol |
 Australia | 292 | 26 mpg-US (9.0 L/100 km) | ||
 India | 370 | 20 mpg-US (12 L/100 km) | ||
| Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km Source: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.[125] | ||||
Less dependence on imported oil
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests.[34][126][127] In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.[128][129]
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.[34][126][127][130]
Vehicle-to-grid
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.[131] A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.[132] In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[131][133][134]
Disadvantages
Cost of batteries and cost of ownership
- Cost of batteries
As of 2015, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack was about US$1,700/kWh of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-40 about 8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40.[135][136] As of June 2012, and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S, the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-hour.[137] A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kWh in 2007 to US$500 per kWh in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kWh in 2015 and US$125 per kWh by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[138]
According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), battery prices fell 65% since 2010, and 35% just in 2015, reaching US$350 per kWh. The study concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US$120 per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.[5]
- Cost of ownership
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is US$4,819 more expensive.[139] These findings assumed a battery cost of US$600 per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US$10,000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US$14,400. The study also assumed a gasoline price of US$3.75 per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year, an average price of electricity of US$0.12 per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay US$1,500 to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.[140]
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.[140]
| Comparison of net lifetime savings among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices)[140] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Description | Conventional ICE | Hybrid electric (HEV) | Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) | Battery electric (BEV) |
| Scenario: 2010 costs (battery US$600 per kWh, gasoline US$3.75 per gallon, and electricity US$0.12 per kWh) | ||||
| Purchase price | US$21,390 | US$22,930 | US$30,235 | US$33,565 |
| Total net present cost | US$32,861 | US$33,059 | US$38,239 | US$37,680 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | US$197 | US$5,377 | US$4,819 |
| Scenario: Future Costs – Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,680 | US$34,601 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$1,472) | US$449 | (US$3,478) |
| Scenario: Future Costs – Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$150 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,080 | US$32,549 | US$26,971 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$2,072) | (US$1,603) | (US$7,181) |
| Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp) HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$32,829 | US$31,366 | US$34,403 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$463) | US$2,574 | (US$1,155) |
| Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time. Does not take into account other differences in cost of ownership. | ||||
According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013, the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles. For comparison, the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution. The study took into account the manufacturer's suggested retail price, taxes, credits, destination charge, electric charging station, fuel cost, maintenance cost, and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf.[141]
| Electric Power Research Institute comparison of the Leaf versus average conventional and hybrid cars. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Operating mode (powertrain) | Total ownership cost | |||||||
| US Average | California | ||||||||
| Nissan Leaf SV | All-electric | $37,288 | $35,596 | ||||||
| Chevrolet Volt | Plug-in hybrid | $44,176 | $40,800 | ||||||
| Average Conventional | Gasoline | $44,949 | $46,561 | ||||||
| Average Hybrid | Gasoline-electric hybrid | $44,325 | $45,416 | ||||||
| Notes: Costs are based on a gasoline price of $3.64 per gallon, an electricity rate of $0.12/kWh, and a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 miles. The average conventional car was constructed by averaging of Honda Civic EX, Chevrolet Cruze LTZ, Ford Focus Titanium, and Volkswagen Passat. The average hybrid car was constructed from Ford Fusion Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE, and Toyota Prius trim IV. | |||||||||
Availability of recharging infrastructure
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[142][143] Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.[143][144] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[145] However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.[144]
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars.[144] Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees.[144][146] Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website.[146] As of December 2013, Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.[147][148][149]
The importance to build the infrastructure necessary to support electric vehicles is illustrated by the decision of Car2Go in San Diego, California, that due to insufficient charging infrastructure decided to replace all of its all-electric car fleet with gasoline-powered cars starting on 1 May 2016. When the carsharing service started in 2011, Car2Go expected 1,000 charging stations to be deployed around the city, but only 400 were in place by early 2016. As a result, an average of 20% of the carsharing fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don’t have enough electricity in them to be driven. Also, many of the company’s 40,000 San Diego members say they often worry their Car2Go will run out of charge before they finish their trip.[150]
Battery swapping
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs.[151][152] Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii.[153] The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network.[154] The robotic battery-switching operation was completed in about five minutes.[155]
After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.[156][157]
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[158] In June 2013, Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations. At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.[159][160] The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. These will be followed by the Washington, DC to Boston corridor.[159]
Other charging solutions
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked.[161][162][163] Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA. When the REVA NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work.[164][165] The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12-volt lead-acid accessory battery.[166] The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof/spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery.[167]
Potential overload of the electrical grid
The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.[144][168]
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin, Texas. The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground, and as of June 2013, the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone. This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's $7,500 rebate incentive, which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug-hybrid electric cars.[169]
Risks associated with noise reduction
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.[170][171]
Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.[172][173][174] At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.[171] However, a 2011 study, commissioned by the UK Department for Transport (DfT) and conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory, found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles. In addition, the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph (48 km/h) or slower roads, or where the pedestrian was disabled. A previous study did not found an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required.[175]
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012, include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.[176][177][178][179][180] As of January 2014, most of the hybrids and plug-in electric and hybrids available in the United States, Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system. The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds, because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted.[181] Volkswagen and BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when required by regulation.[182]
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010.[183] In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010.[184][185][186] The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound.[184][187] A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in January, 2013. It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18.6 miles per hour (30 km/h) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises. According to the NHTSA proposal carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices, and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds. The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014.[188][189] However, in January 2015 the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015. Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule, compliance was delayed to 2018.[190]
On 6 February 2013, the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health, and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas, such as blind, visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians, cyclists and children. The draft legislation states a number of tests, standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) to be compulsory in the future.[191][192] The approved amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine."[192] In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.[193][194]
Risks of battery fire
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion.[195] To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range.[196][197] When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries. Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.[198][199][200][201] Also, during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner's first year of service, at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium-ion batteries, resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013.[202][203]
Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV. As of November 2013, four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all-electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars.
The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen.[204] The second reported incident occurred in the United States on October 1, 2013, when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack.[205][206] A second reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. On November 6, 2013, a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.[207]
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research is looking at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident.[208] Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.[209][210]
Rare earth metals availability and supply security
Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[211][212] As of 2011, the Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 lb (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum,[213] and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium.[214] While only 0.25 oz (7 g) of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) are required in a smartphone and 1.1 oz (30 g) in a tablet computer, electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes, businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries. As of 2016 a hybrid electric passenger car might use 11 lb (5 kg) of LCE, while one of Tesla's high performance electric cars could use as much as 180 lb (80 kg).[215]
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[211][212][216][217]
- Lithium
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia.[212][219] In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[220][221]
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia,[212][216] and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium.[216][220] Other important reserves are located in Chile, China, and Brazil.[212][220] Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japanese and South Korean governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests.[216][222][223]
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries (about 10 kg of lithium per car)[224] could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey.[225] Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[226]
A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles. BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1% of the known reserves of lithium, nickel, manganese, and copper through 2030, and 4% of the world’s cobalt. After 2030, the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials, making packs lighter, smaller, and cheaper.[5]
- Rare earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the largest source of rare earth metals and are 80% of China's production. In 2010 China accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements.[213] Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.[217][227][228]
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid-2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam, and Kazakhstan.[227][228][229][230]
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply.[228][231] A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies.[232][233] China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.[234]
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160).[235][236] The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals.[236][237] A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.[236][238]
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor.[214]
Car dealers reluctance to sell
With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.[239][240] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.[239] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.[240]
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance.[239] According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.[239]
A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California’s major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.[240][241]
In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople’s knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “discouraged sale of EV,” with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.[242]
The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car’s benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.[240]
Government incentives
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.
Asia
- Japan
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009.[243] The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program).[243][244]
- China
On June 1, 2010, The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan (~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.[245][246]
Europe
As of 2010, 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles.[21][247]
In the UK the Plug-in Car Grant scheme provided a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, capped at GB£5,000 (US$7,800) until February 2016.[248] Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.[249] In December 2015, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced that Plug-in car grant was extended to encourage more than 100,000 UK motorists to buy cleaner vehicles. The criteria for the Plug-in Car Grant was updated and the maximum grant dropped from GB£5,000 (~US$7,450) to GB£4,500 (~US$6,700). The eligible ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEVs) must meet criteria in one of three categories depending on emission levels (CO2 emissions bands between 50 and 75g/km) and zero-emission-capable mileage (minimum of 10 mi (16 km)).[250][251][252]
A price cap is in place, with all Category 1 plug-in vehicles eligible for the full grant no matter what their purchase price, while Category 2 and 3 models with a list price of more than GB£60,000 (~US$90,000) will not be eligible for the grant. Vehicles with a zero-emission range of at least 70 miles (110 km) (category 1), including hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, will get a full GB£4,500 (~US$6,700), but plug-in hybrids (categories 2 and 3) costing under GB£60,000 (~US$90,000) will receive GB£2,500 (~US$3,725).[251][252] Under the extended scheme, some plug-in hybrid sports car will no longer be eligible for the grant, such as the BMW i8 because of its GB£100,000 (~US$150,000) purchase price tag.[253] The updated scheme came into force on 1 March 2016.[252]
Germany approved an incentive scheme in April 2016 with a budget of €1 billion (US$1.13 billion). The cost of the purchase incentive is shared equally between the government and automakers. Electric car buyers get a €4,000 (US$4,520) discount while buyers of plug-in hybrid vehicles get a discount of €3,000 (US$3,390). Premium cars, such as the Tesla Model S and BMW i8, are not eligible to the incentive because there is a cap of €60,000 (US$67,800) for the purchase price.[254][255][256] Only electric vehicles purchased after 18 May 2016 are eligible for the bonus and the owner must keep the new electric car at least nine months. The same rule applies for leasing.[257] The online application system to claim the bonus went into effect on 2 July 2016.[258] As of September 2016, BMW, Citroën, Daimler, Ford, Hyundai, Kia, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Peugeot, Renault, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Volvo had signed up to participate in the scheme.[257][259]
North America
- United States
In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles.[19] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.[20]
The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500.[19] Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.
President Barack Obama set the goal of bringing 1 million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015.[260][261] However, considering the actual slow rate of PEV sales, as of mid-2012 several industry observers have concluded that this goal is unattainable.[262][263][264] In September 2014 Governor of California Jerry Brown signed a bill, the Charge Ahead California Initiative, that sets a goal of placing at least 1 million zero-emission vehicles and near-zero-emission vehicles on the road in California by January 1, 2023.[265]
- Canada
Ontario established a rebate between CA$5,000 to CA$8,500 (~US$4,900 to US$8,320), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates are available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.[266]
Quebec offers rebates of up to CA$8,500 (US$8,485) from January 1, 2012, for the purchase of new plug-in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery, and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA$1,000 rebate. All-electric vehicles with high-capacity battery packs are eligible for the full C$8,000 rebate, and incentives are reduced for low-range electric cars and plug-in hybrids.[267][268]
Production plug-in electric vehicles available
_cropped.jpg)
During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles, and they were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.[269] In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, as of 2011, most electric vehicles in the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) or electric quadricycles. Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.[270] Just in China, a total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries.[271] An additional 600,000 low-speed small electric passenger vehicles were sold in China in 2015.[17] As of October 2015, the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America, with global sales of more than 50,000 units since 1998.[272]
As of August 2015, there were almost 70 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-utility vans available in the world, with 45 different plug-in electric passenger car models offered in Europe, 20 available in North America, 19 in China, 14 in Japan, and 7 in Australia.[273] There are also available several commercial models of plug-in motorcycles, all-electric buses, and heavy-duty trucks.
The Renault-Nissan Alliance is the world's leading all-electric vehicle manufacturer. The Alliance achieved the sales milestone of 350,000 all-electric vehicles delivered globally in August 2016.[274] Nissan global electric vehicle sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016.[274] Renault global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in September 2016.[275][276]
BYD Auto is the world's second largest plug-in electric car manufacturer with more than 171,000 units delivered in China through October 2016. Its Qin plug-in hybrid is the company's top selling model with over 65,000 units sold in China through September 2016, making it the all-time best-selling plug-in electric car in the country.[277][278] Tesla Motors is the world's third largest plug-in electric vehicle manufacturer with almost 164,000 electric cars sold between 2008 and September 2016.[277] Its Model S was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2015,[279] and continued to lead global plug-in sales during the first nine months of 2016.[280]
Ranking next is Mitsubishi Motors with global sales of over 152,000 plug-in electric vehicles since 2009 through August 2016, consisting of all-electric cars of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family, all-electric Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV utility vans and trucks, and the plug-in hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV.[281][282] Next is General Motors with combined global sales since December 2010 of almost 113,000 vehicles through December 2015, consisting of over 106,000 plug-in hybrids of the Volt/Ampera family, over 4,300 Chevrolet Spark EVs, and over 2,400 Cadillac ELRs.[279][283][284][285] As of early November 2016, BMW has sold 100,000 plug-in cars, accounting for global sales its BMW i cars and BMW iPerformance plug-in hybrid models.[286]
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with 61,722 units sold, mostly plug-in hybrids, followed by Tesla Motors, with 50,580 units sold in 2015.[279][287][288] During the first three quarters of 2016, BYD continued as the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer with over 74,030 units sold, followed again by Tesla with 54,043 units delivered.[277] In September 2016, combined sales of Tesla Motors models totaled over 13,000 units worldwide, setting the record as the best monthly plug-in sales volume ever, by any automaker of plug-in cars.[280]
Sales and main markets
By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone.[290][291] Sales of plug-in electric vehicles achieved the one million milestone almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). While it took four years and 10 months to reach one-million PEV sales, it took more than around nine years and a few months for HEVs to reach its first million sales.[290][291] When global sales are broken down by type of powertrain, all-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids, with pure electrics capturing 58.9% of the global stock of 1.257 million plug-ins on the world's roads by the end of 2015.[17] The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) has consistently been 60:40 between 2014 and the first half of 2016, mainly due to the large all-electric market in China. In the U.S. and Europe, the ratio is approaching a 50:50 split.[292] Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles since 2010 achieved the one million unit milestone in September 2016.[7]
The global stock of plug-in electric vehicles between 2005 and 2009 consisted exclusively of all-electric cars, totaling about 1,700 units in 2005, and almost 6,000 in 2009. The plug-in stock rose to about 12,500 units in 2010, of which, only 350 vehicles were plug-in hybrids.[17][293] By comparison, during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.[289] After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in late December 2010, the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers, plug-in car sales grew to about 50,000 units in 2011, jumped to 125,000 in 2012, and rose to almost 213,000 plug-in electric cars and utility vans in 2013. Sales totaled over 315,000 units in 2014, up 48% from 2013.[294]
In five years, global sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have increased more than ten-fold, totaling more than 565,000 units in 2015. Plug-in sales in 2015 increased about 80% from 2014, driven mainly by China and Europe.[294] Both markets passed in 2105 the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015.[295][296] About 307,000 plug-in cars and vans were sold during the first half of 2016.[297] Since 2004, cumulative global sales totaled over 1.5 million plug-in cars and utility vans by the end of May 2016.[6] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just 0.1% of the one billion cars on the world's roads by the end of 2015.[5]
As of September 2016, cumulative sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles by country were led by the United States and China, both with about 521,000 plug-in passenger cars sold.[11][12] Japan is the world's third largest plug-in car market with about 145,000 plug-ins sold through September 2016.[13] About 570,000 light-duty plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe up until September 2016, representing 31.9% of global sales, and making the continent the world's largest light-duty plug-in regional market.[11] As of September 2016, sales in the European light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by Norway with over 121,300 units,[15] followed by France with more than 100,000 units registered by October 2016,[14] and the Netherlands ratio
As of September 2016, more than 733,000 new energy vehicles have been sold in China since 2011, making the country the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses, plug-in trucks, and sanitation trucks.[299][300] As of December 2015, China was the world's largest electric bus market with close to 173,000 plug-in electric buses, representing almost the entire global stock of plug-in buses.[17][301]
During 2014, four of the ten top selling countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales.[302][303] Also two small countries achieved this mark in 2014.[304] In 2015 nine countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share equal or higher than 1% of total new car sales.[295] In 2015 the European plug-in passenger car market share passed the one percent mark (1.41%) for the first time.[305] The following table presents the top 10 countries according to their PEV market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013. The market share for two selected regions, Europe and California, is also shown.
| Top 10 countries or autonomous territories by plug-in electric passenger car market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Country or territory |
Market share (%) 2015[295][306] |
Rank | Country or territory |
Market share (%) 2014[302] |
Rank | Country or territory |
Market share (%) 2013[307] |
| 1 |  Norway | 22.39 % | 1 | Norway | 13.84 % | 1 | Norway | 6.10 % |
| 2 |  Netherlands | 9.74 % | 2 | Netherlands | 3.87 % | 2 | Netherlands | 5.55 % |
| 3 |  Hong Kong | 4.84 % | 3 |  Iceland[304] and Estonia (1.57%).[304] | 2.71 % | 3 | Iceland | 0.94 % |
| 4 | Iceland[308] | 2.93 % | 4 |  Estonia[304] | 1.57 % | 4 | Japan | 0.91 % |
| 5 | Sweden | 2.62 % | 5 | Sweden[303] | 1.53 % | 5 | France(2) | 0.83 % |
| 6 |  Denmark | 2.29 % | 6 | Japan | 1.06 % | 6 | Estonia | 0.73 % |
| 7 |  Switzerland | 1.98 % | 7 | Denmark[309] | 0.88 % | 7 | Sweden[303] | 0.71 % |
| 8 | France | 1.19 % | 8 | Switzerland[310] | 0.75 % | 8 | United States | 0.60 % |
| 9 | United Kingdom | 1.07 % | 9 | United States | 0.72 % | 9 | Switzerland | 0.44 % |
| 10 |  Austria[311] | 0.90 % | 10 | France(2) | 0.70 % | 10 | Denmark | 0.29 % |
| Selected regional markets Plug-in electric passenger car market share between 2015 and 2013 | ||||||||
 California[312] | 3.1 % | California[312] | 3.2 % | California[312] | 2.5 % | |||
 Europe(1)[305] | 1.41 % | Europe(1)[313] | 0.66 % | Europe(1)[314] | 0.49 % | |||
| Notes: (1) European figures correspond to European Union member countries plus EFTA countries (Norway and Switzerland) 2) The French market share corresponds to combined sales all-electric passenger cars and utility vans only (plug-in hybrids not included). | ||||||||
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars in the American market climbed more rapidly and outsold by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods.[315] A 2016 analysis by the Consumer Federation of America (CFA) found that 5 years after its introduction, sales of plug-in electric cars in the U.S. continued to outsell conventional hybrids.[316] An analysis by Scientific American found a similar trend at the international level when considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36-month introductory period. Monthly sales of the Volt, Prius PHV and Leaf performed better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods, with the exception of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36-month introductory periods.[317] According to Pike Research, global sales of plug-ins will surpass 1 million per year in 2017, after 7 years in the market and almost half the time it took hybrid electric vehicles to reach that sales threshold.[318]
United States
As of September 2016, cumulative sales totaled 521,403 highway legal plug-in electric cars in the U.S. since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008.[12][322] As of September 2016, the United States, together with China, have the largest country fleet of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in the world, representing 29.2% of the global light-duty plug-in stock.[11] California is the country's largest regional market with about 250,000 plug-in electric vehicles delivered by November 2016, representing 46% of all plug-in cars sold in American market since 2010.[323] Nationwide sales climbed from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013.[324] During 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,248 units, and fell to 114,248 in 2015.[283] A total of 108,397 plug-in cars were sold during the first nine months of 2016, up 40% year-on-year.[12][325]
The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% of new car sales in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales in 2014.[283][326][327] As plug-in car sales slowed down during 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales.[283] The market share increased to 0.83% during the first nine months of 2016.[325] The highest-ever monthly market share for plug-in electric vehicles was achieved in September 2016, becoming the first time the plug-in segment market share passed the 1% mark in the U.S.[322] September 2016 is also the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with 16,069 units delivered.[322] California plug-in sales in 2015 achieved a 3.1% market share, 4.7 times higher than the U.S.[328]
As of September 2016, total sales are led by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 105,076 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf all-electric car with 98,829 units delivered.[319][325] The Tesla Model S ranks as the third top selling plug-in electric car with an estimated 84,017 units sold through September 2016, followed by the Prius PHV with 42,345 units.[12][319][325] Ranking fifth is the Ford Fusion Energi with 39,039 units, followed by the Ford C-Max Energi with 30,928 units delivered through September 2016.[319][325] Plug-in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 30,200 units.[284] The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2015 with 25,202 units delivered.[283][329] Up until the end of the third quarter of 2016, the Model S remained as the top selling plug-in car with an estimated 20,856 units delivered, followed by the Volt with 16,326, the Model X with an estimated 12,328 units, and the Fusion Energi with 11,650.[12][325]
China
New energy vehicle sales in China totaled 733,477 units between January 2011 and September 2016. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks, and only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies.[299][300] As of September 2016, the Chinese stock of plug-in electric vehicles consisted of about 540,000 all-electric vehicles (73.7%) and almost 193,000 plug-in hybrids (26.3%) sold since 2011.[300][334][335][336][337][338][339] As of December 2015, the global stock of plug-in electric buses was estimated to be about 173,000 units, almost entirely deployed in China, the world's largest electric bus market. Of these, almost 150,000 are all-electric buses. The Chinese electric bus stock grew nearly sixfold between 2014 and 2015.[17]
As of September 2016, cumulative sales of domestically produced highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 521,649 units since 2005.[299][340] As of September 2016, China, together with the United States, have the largest country fleet of plug-in passenger cars in the world, representing 29.2% of the global light-duty plug-in stock.[11] A particular feature of the Chinese passenger plug-in market is the dominance of small entry level vehicles. In 2015, all-electric car sales in the mini and small segments (A-segment) represented 87% of total pure electric car sales, while 96% of total plug-in hybrid car sales were in the compact segment (C-segment).[341]
New energy vehicle sales during 2014 reached 74,763 units, up 320% from 2013, and representing a market share of 0.32% of the 23.5 million new car sales sold that year.[331] Of these, 71% were passenger cars, 27% buses, and 1% trucks.[342] The BYD Qin plug-in hybrid, introduced in December 2013, ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2014 with 14,747 units sold,[342] and became the country's top selling passenger NEV ever.[343] Domestically produced new energy vehicle sales in 2015 totaled a record 331,092 units.[330]
.JPG)
Sales of plug-in passenger cars, excluding imports, totaled 207,380 units in 2015, making China the world's best-selling plug-in electric car country market in 2015.[17][295] The plug-in electric passenger car segment market share rose to 0.84% in 2015, up from 0.25% in 2014.[344] The top selling passenger models in 2015 were the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid with 31,898 units sold, followed by the BYD Tang (18,375).[345][346][347] As a reflex of the explosive growth of the Chinese plug-in electric car market in 2015, BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with around 60,000 units sold, ahead of Tesla Motors (50,580).[279][287] During the first three quarters of 2016, BYD continued as the world's top selling plug-in car manufacturer with over 74,000 units delivered in China.[277]
The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 achieved the 500,000 unit milestone in March 2016, making the country the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses and plug-in trucks.[334] Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars achieved the 500,000 unit milestone in September 2016, excluding imports.[299] A total of 209,359 new energy passenger cars were sold in the first three quarters of 2016, up 122% year-on-year, consisting of about 145,000 all-electric cars, up 170% year-on-year, and about 65,000 plug-in hybrids, up 60% year-on-year.[340] The plug-in segment market share totaled 1.08% of new car sales during the period.[300][340] The BYD Tang ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in China during the first nine months of 2016 with 26,788 units sold.[11] As of September 2016, the BYD Qin, with 65,178 units sold since its inception, remains the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in the country.[11]
Japan
As of September 2016, the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Japan is the world's third largest after the United States and China, with about 145,000 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles sold in the country since 2009.[13] The Japanese stock of plug-in vehicles represented 8.1% of cumulative global sales as of September 2016.[11] Plug-in segment sales climbed from 1,080 units in 2009 to 12,630 in 2011, and reached 24,440 in 2012.[17] Global sales of pure electric cars in 2012 were led by Japan with a 28% market share of the segment sales. Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug-in hybrid sales in 2012, with 12% of global sales.[349] A total of 30,587 highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles were sold in Japan in 2013.[302]
The plug-in segment sales remained flat in 2014 with 30,390 units sold, and a market share of 1.06% of total new car sales in the country (kei cars not included).[302] Sales totaled 24,660 units in 2015, consisting of 10,420 all-electrics and 14,190 plug-in hybrids.[17] The rate of growth of the Japanese plug-in segment slowed down from 2013, with annual sales falling behind Europe, the U.S. and China during 2014 and 2015.[295][350] The decline in plug-in car sales reflects the Japanese government and the major domestic carmakers decision to adopt and promote hydrogen fuel cell vehicles instead of plug-in electric vehicles.[351][352]
Sales of the plug-in electric segment in 2013 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 13,021 units sold, up from 11,115 in 2012.[354] The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV ranked second with 9,608 units sold in 2013.[355][356] The Leaf continued as the market leader in 2014 for the fourth year running with 14,177 units sold, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 10,064 units, together representing about 80% of the plug-in segment sales in Japan in 2014.[355][357][358] In 2015 the Outlander plug-in hybrid was the top selling plug-in electric car in the country with 10,996 units sold, followed by the Leaf with 9,057 units.[353] Cumulative sales of plug-in electric cars since 2009 totaled 126,420 units at the end of 2015.[17]
During the first three quarters of 2016 the Nissan Leaf led sales with 12,134 units delivered.[359] Since December 2010, Nissan has sold 69,833 Leafs through September 2016, making the Leaf the all-time best-selling plug-in car in the country.[348] Between January and August 2016, a total of 4,162 Outlander P-HEVs were sold in Japan.[360] Sales of the Outlander plug-in hybrid fell sharply from April 2016 as a result of Mitsubishi's fuel mileage scandal.[361] Since its inception, sales of the plug-in hybrid totaled 34,830 units through August 2016.[360]
Europe
Cumulative sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Europe passed the 500,000 unit milestone in May 2016, representing about a third of global sales.[362] Of these, 192,827 units (38.6%) were registered in 2015,[305][363] with passenger cars accounting for 186,170 units (96.5%).[364] During the first three quarters of 2016 an additional 143,315 new passenger plug-in electric cars were registered in Europe. All-electric car registrations were up 7.7% from the same period in 2015, and plug-in hybrid up 38.7%.[365] European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by Norway with more than 121,000 units registered through September 2016.[13][366] Norway passed the 100,000th registered unit milestone in April 2016, and, as of September 2016, ranks as the fourth largest plug-in country market in the world after the U.S., China and Japan.[13] France passed the 100,000 unit milestone in September 2016, surpassing the Netherlands as the second largest European plug-in market.[14] As of September 2016, Europe continued to rank as the world's largest light-duty plug-in regional market with about 570,000 units registered, representing 31.9% of the global stock.[11]
As of December 2015, France ranked as the largest European market for light-duty electric commercial vehicles or utility vans, accounting for nearly half of all vans sold in the European Union.[367] The French market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% of new vans registered in 2014, and 1.30% in 2015.[368] Denmark is the second largest European market, with over 2,600 plug-in electric vans sold in 2015, with an 8.5% market share of all vans sold in the country. Most of the van sold in the Danish market are plug-in hybrids, accounting for almost all of the plug-in hybrid van sales across the EU.[367]
| Annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Europe by type of powertrain (2010–2015) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Total BEV sales(1) |
Growth (BEVs) |
Total PHEV sales |
Growth (PHEVs) |
Total PEV sales(2) |
Growth (PEVs) |
PEV market share(3) |
| 2010 | 2,919[369] | – | 0 | - | 2,919 | - | 0.01%[370] |
| 2011 | 13,779[369] | 372.0% | 304[371] | – | 14,083 | 382.5% | 0.08%[372] |
| 2012 | 24,713[373] | 79.4% | 9,620[371][374] | 3,064% | 34,333 | 143.8% | 0.23%[375] |
| 2013 | 40,496[373] | 63.9% | 31,447[376] | 226.9% | 71,943 | 109.5% | 0.53%[377] |
| 2014 | 65,199[378] | 61.0% | 39,547[376] | 25,8% | 104,746 | 45.6% | 0.75% [379] |
| 2015 | 97,687[363] | 49.8% | 95,140[305] | 240.6% | 192,827 | 84.1% | 1.41%[305] |
| Total | 244,793 | – | 176,058 | - | 420,851 | - | – |
| Notes: (1) Battery electric vehicles (BEV) includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans. (2) Includes all-electric passenger cars, all-electric utility vans, and plug-in hybrids. (3) Market share of the plug-in passenger segment of total new car sales (utility vans not included). | |||||||
A total of 1,614 all-electric cars and 1,305 light-utility vehicles were sold in 2010. Sales jumped from 2,919 units in 2010 to 13,779 in 2011, consisting of 11,271 pure electric cars and 2,508 commercial vans.[369] In addition, over 300 plug-in hybrids were sold in 2011, mainly Opel Amperas.[371] Light-duty plug-in vehicle sales totaled 34,333 units in 2012, consisting of 24,713 all-electric cars and vans, and 9,620 plug-in hybrids.[371][373][374] The Opel/Vauxhall Ampera plug-in hybrid was Europe's top selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 5,268 units, closely followed by the all-electric Nissan Leaf with 5,210 units.[371][380]
The plug-in segment sales more than double to 71,943 units in 2013. Pure electric passenger and light commercial vehicles sales increased by 63.9% to 40,496 units.[373] In addition, a total of 31,477 extended-range cars and plug-in hybrids were sold in 2013.[376] Registrations reached 104,746 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in 2014, up 45.6% from 2013. A total of 65,199 pure electric cars and light-utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014, up 60.9% from 2013. All-electric passenger cars represented 87% of the European all-electric segment registrations.[378] Extended-range cars and plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 39,547 units in 2014, up 25.8% from 2013.[376]
For the first time in the region, in 2015 plug-in hybrids (95,140) outsold all-electric cars (89,640) in the passenger car segment,[305] however, when light-duty plug-in utility vehicles are accounted for, the all-electric segment totaled 97,687 registrations in 2015, up 65,199 in 2014, and ahead of the plug-in hybrid segment.[363] Also in 2015, the European market share of plug-in electric cars passed the 1% mark for the first time, with a 1.41% share of new car sales that year.[305] This trend continue during 2016. Since April 2016 plug-in hybrids have outsold all-electric cars, and the gap has continued to widen. Accounting for passenger plug-in car sales in Western Europe between January and July 2016, plug-in hybrids captured almost 54% of the region's plug-in market sales.[381] Sales of passenger all-electric cars totaled almost 50,000 units during the first seven months of 2016, capturing a 0.6% of new car sales in the region.[382] In the other hand, sales of plug-in hybrids totaled 63,700 units during the first eight months of 2016, capturing a 0.7% of new car sales in the region.[381][383]
During 2013 took place a surge in sales of plug-in hybrids in the European market, particularly in the Netherlands, with 20,164 PHEVs registered during the year.[384][385] Out of the 71,943 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans sold in the region during 2013, plug-in hybrids totaled 31,447 units, representing 44% of the plug-in electric vehicle segment sales that year.[373][376] This trend continued in 2014. Plug-in hybrids represented almost 30% of the plug-in electric drive sales during the first six months of 2014, and with the exception of the Nissan Leaf, sales of the previous European best selling models fell significantly, while recently introduced models captured a significant share of the segment sales, with the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Tesla Model S, BMW i3, Renault Zoe, Volkswagen e-Up!, and the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid ranking among the top ten best selling models.[386]
In 2014 Norway was the top selling country in the light-duty all-electric market segment, with 18,649 passenger cars and utility vans registered, more than doubling its 2013 sales. France ranked second with 15,046 units registered, followed by Germany with 8,804 units, the UK with 7,730 units, and the Netherlands with 3,585 car and vans registrations.[387] In the plug-in hybrid segment, the Netherlands was the top selling country in 2014 with 12,425 passenger cars registered,[388] followed by the UK with 7,821,[389] Germany with 4,527,[390] and Sweden 3,432 units.[303] Five European countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales in 2014, Norway (13.84%), the Netherlands (3.87%), Iceland (2.71%), Estonia (1.57%), and Sweden (1.53%).[302][303][304]
In 2013 the top selling plug-in was the Leaf with 11,120 units sold,[393] followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 8,197 units.[391] The Mitsubishi Outlander plug-in hybrid was the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in Europe in 2014 with 19,853 units sold,[392] surpassing of the Nissan Leaf (14,658), which fell to second place.[394] Ranking third was the Renault Zoe with 11,231 units.[395]
For a second year running, the Mitsubishi’s Outlander P-HEV was the top selling plug-in electric car in Europe with 31,214 units sold in 2015, up 57% from 2014.[392] The Renault Zoe ranked second among plug-in electric cars, with 18,727 registrations, and surpassed the Nissan Leaf to become best selling pure electric car in Europe in 2015.[363] Ranking next were the Volkswagen Golf GTE plug-in hybrid (17,300), followed by the all-electric Tesla Model S (15,515) and the Nissan Leaf (15,455), the BMW i3, including its REx variant, (12,047), and the Audi A3 e-tron plug-in hybrid (11,791).[363][392]
The Netherlands was the top selling country in the European light-duty plug-in electric market segment, with 43,971 passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015. Norway ranked second with 34,455 units registered, followed by the UK with 28,188 units, France with 27,701 car and vans registrations, and Germany with 23,464 plug-in cars.[295] Eight European countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales in 2015, Norway (22.4%), the Netherlands (9.7%), Iceland (2.9%), Sweden (2.6%), Denmark (2.3%), Switzerland (2.0%), France (1.2%) and the UK (1.1%).[295][306] As of December 2015, almost 25% of the European plug-in stock was registered in the Nordic countries, with over 100,000 units registered. In 2015, combined registrations in the four countries were up 91% from 2014.[396][397]
As of December 2015, and accounting for cumulative sales since 2010, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in the region with 59,264 units delivered,[391][392] followed by the Nissan Leaf with 48,936 units,[363][398] Renault Zoe with 38,890 units,[399] Tesla Model S with 28,149,[363][400][401] and the BMW i3 with 23,268 units.[392][400][402] The Renault Kangoo Z.E. is the top selling all-electric utility van with 21,016 units.[399]
| Top 12 selling plug-in electric car models in Europe (sales or registrations between 2010–2015) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ranking | Model | Total sales/ registrations | 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 |
| 1 | Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV[391][392] | 59,264 | 31,214 | 19,853 | 8,197 | |||
| 2 | Nissan Leaf[363][371][393][398][400] | 48,936 | 15,455 | 14,658 | 11,120 | 5,210 | 1,728 | 144 |
| 3 | Renault Zoe[399] | 38,890 | 18,728 | 11,231 | 8,863 | 68 | ||
| 4 | Tesla Model S[363][400][401] | 28,149 | 15,515 | 8,734 | ~3,900 | |||
| 5 | BMW i3[392][400][402] | 23,268 | 12,047 | 9,744 | 1,477 | |||
| 6 | Renault Kangoo Z.E.[399] | 21,016 | 4,238 | 4,197 | 5,850 | 5,260 | 991 | |
| 7 | Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid[392][403][404][405] | 19,898 | 6,349 | 5,441 | 8,066 | 42 | ||
| 8 | Volkswagen Golf GTE[392] | 18,397 | 17,300 | 1,097 | ||||
| 9 | Volkswagen e-Golf[363][400] | 14,438 | 11,110 | 3,328 | ||||
| 10 | Audi A3 e-tron[392] | 12,945 | 11,791 | 1,154 | ||||
| 11 | Toyota Prius PHV[406][407][408][409] | 10,371 | 932 | 1,352 | 4,591 | 3,496 | ||
| 12 | Opel Ampera[371][403][410] | 9,989 | 300 | 933 | 3,184 | 5,268 | 304 | |
Norway
As of September 2016, a total of 121,330 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in Norway, making the country the largest European plug-in market and the fourth largest in the world.[13][366] Accounting for registrations of both new car sales and used imports, as of September 2016, the Norwegian light-duty plug-in electric fleet consist of 92,813 all-electric passenger cars, 26,225 plug-in hybrids, and 2,292 all-electric vans. Sales of used imports in Norway are significant, and as of September 2016, a total of 14,383 used plug-in vehicles from neighboring countries had been imported, mostly pure electric cars.[13] The government's target of 50,000 all-electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached in April 2015, more than two years earlier than expected, thanks to the successful policies implemented to promote electric vehicle adoption that include fiscal and non-monetary incentives.[414][415] The milestone of 100,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered was achieved in April 2016.[416][417]
The Norwegian fleet of electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because 98% of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower.[418][419] Norway, with about 5.2 million people, is the country with the largest EV ownweship per capita in the world.[420][421][422] In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug-in electric.[423] The segment's market penetration reached 2% in March 2015,[424] and passed 3% in December 2015.[425][426] With about 90,000 pure electric vehicles registered by mid-September 2016, the all-electric segment achieved a market penetration of 3.5% of all passenger cars on Norwegians roads.[427]
Also the Norwegian plug-in electric vehicle market share of new car sales is the highest in the world. The electric car segment market share rose from 1.6% in 2011, to 3.1% in 2012,[428] and reached 5.6% of new car sales in 2013.[411] In 2014, the all-electric market share climbed to 13.8% accounting for plug-in hybrids.[302][429] The combined sales of new plug-in cars reached a market share of 23.4% in 2015.[295] During the first six months of 2016, the combined sales of new plug-in cars reached a market share of 28.4% of all new passenger cars sold.[430] The highest-ever monthly market share for plug-in electric passenger segment was achieved in March 2016 with 33.5% of new car sales.[431][432] Also, Norway was the first country in the world to have all-electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. The Tesla Model S has been the top selling new car four times, and the Nissan Leaf has topped the monthly new car sales ranking twice.[13] In March 2014 the Tesla Model S also broke the 28-year-old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source, surpassing the previous record set in May 1986.[433][434] In July 2016, when new car registrations are break down by type of powertrain, for the first time a plug-in hybrid, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, listed as the top selling new car.[435] In September 2016, the Tesla Model X ranked as the top selling new car model in Norway when registrations are broken down by type of powetrain.[13][436][437] The BMW i3 was the top selling new car model in the country in November 2016.[438]
A total of 39,632 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2015, up 69.3% from 2014. New plug-in sales totaled 34,455 units, consisting of 25,779 pure electric cars, 7,964 plug-in hybrids, and 712 all-electric utility vans. In addition, 5,177 used imports were registered.[413] The VW e-Golf, with 8,943 units sold, was the best-selling plug-in electric car in 2015, followed by the Tesla Model S (4,039).[439] The top selling plug-in hybrid in 2015 was the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (2,875), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (2,000).[439]
During the first three quarters of 2016, registrations of new light-duty plug-in vehicles totaled 33,817 units, consisting of 17,498 all-electric cars, 15,888 plug-in hybrids, and 431 all-electric vans.[366][440] In addition, a total of 4,008 used imported cars and van were registered.[440] Combined registrations of new and used imports totaled 37,825 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles between January and September 2016.[366][440] Registrations of new plug-in cars reached a market share of 28.8% of all new passenger cars sold during the first nine months of 2016, with 15.1% for all-electric cars, and 13.7% for plug-in hybrids.[440] During the first seven months of 2016, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV was the top selling plug-in car with 3,347 units registered, followed by the Volkswagen e-Golf with 3,138 units, the Nissan Leaf with 2,829, and the Volkswagen Golf GTE with 2,507.[441] As of September 2016, the Nissan Leaf continued to rank as the all-time best selling plug-in electric car in the country with a total of 18,591 new Leafs registered since 2011. When used imported Leafs from neighboring countries are accounted for, there were more than 25,000 Leafs on Norwegian roads by September 2016, representing about 10% of Leaf global sales.[13][442]
France
The stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in France passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2016, making the country the second largest plug-in market in Europe after Norway, and the world's fifth.[14][15] As of September 2016, and accounting for registrations since 2010, the plug-in electric stock consisted of 61,686 all-electric passenger cars, 24,696 all-electric utility vans, and 12,857 plug-in hybrids.[14] As of December 2015, France is the country with the world's largest market for light-duty electric commercial vehicles or utility vans. Nearly half of the vans sold in the European Union are sold in France as a result of a national purchase incentive scheme, which French companies have embraced.[367] The market share of all-electric utility vans reached a market share of 1.22% of new vans registered in 2014, and 1.30% in 2015.[368]
Electric car registrations increased from 184 units in 2010 to 2,630 in 2011. Sales in 2012 increased 115% from 2011 to 5,663 cars.[443][451][452] Registrations reached 8,779 electric cars in 2013, up 55.0% from 2012,[444] and the all-electric market share of total new car sales went up to 0.49% from 0.3% in 2012.[452][453] In addition, 5,175 electric utility vans were registered in 2013, up 42% from 2012.[444] Sales of electric passenger cars and utility vans totaled 13,954 units in 2013,[444] capturing a combined market share of 0.65% of these two segments.[454] Almost 1,500 plug-in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 2013, 666 units in 2012,[455] and 808 units in 2013.[456][457]
A total of 15,045 all-electric cars and vans were registered in 2014, of which, pure electric passenger cars totaled 10,560 units.[447] This figure rises to 10,968 units if the BMW i3 with range extender is accounted for.[458] All-electric utility vans totaled 4,485 units registered in 2014.[447] All-electric cars captured a 0.59% market share of new car registered in France in 2014.[443] Plug-in hybrid car registrations totaled 1,519 units in 2014, almost doubling registrations from a year earlier.[459] Plug-in hybrid sales were driven by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with 820 units registered in 2014.[460] The Zoe led all-electric vehicle registration in 2014, with 5,970 units registered, followed by the Kangoo Z.E. van with 2,657 registrations.[443][461]
A total of 27,701 light-duty electric vehicles were registered in France in 2015, consisting of 17,779 all-electric cars, 4,916 electric vans, and 5,006 plug-in hybrid cars.[448][450] All-electric cars captured a 0.9% market share of new passenger car registrations in 2015,[295] and the entire plug-in passenger car market achieved a market share of 1.17%.[295][443][449] All-electric car registrations in 2015 continued to be led by the Renault Zoe (10,406),[443] the electric utility van segment was led by the Kangoo Z.E. (2,836),[450] and the plug-in hybrid segment was led by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (1,687).[449] During the first three quarters of 2016, a total of 24,490 light-duty electric vehicles were registered in France, consisting of 16,091 all-electric cars, 3,991 electric vans, and 4,858 plug-in hybrid cars.[463] The Renault Zoe continued as the top selling plug-in electric car with 8,163 units.[443] The plug-in passenger car market achieved a market share of 1.57% of new car sales during the first nine months of 2016.[443][463]
As of September 2016, the Renault Zoe is the all-time best-selling plug-in electric vehicle in the French market with 30,098 units registered since 2012.[443] Ranking second is the Kangoo Z.E. utility van with 15,032 units registered since 2010.[14] As of September 2016, the all-time top selling plug-in hybrid is the Volkswagen Golf GTE with about 2,500 units, followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with almost 2,000 registered.[14]
Netherlands
The stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles registered in the Netherlands achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2016, making the country the third largest plug-in market in Europe after Norway and France.[468] A total of 98,295 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands at the end of September 2016, consisting of 84,730 range-extended and plug-in hybrids, 11,986 pure electric cars, and 1,579 all-electric light utility vans. When buses, trucks, motorcycles, quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for, the Dutch plug-in electric-drive fleet climbs to 99,763 units.[16] The Netherlands listed as the world's third best-selling country market for light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2015, with 43,971 units registered that year.[295] Until December 2015, the Netherlands had Europe's largest fleet light-duty plug-in vehicles.[295] Plug-in sales fell sharply during 2016, and as a result, by early October 2016, the Netherlands listed as the third largest European plug-in market, after being surpassed during the year by both Norway and France.[14][416] As of July 2016, the Netherlands had the second largest plug-in market concentration per capita in the world after Norway.[469]
Registrations of plug-in electric car represented a 0.57% share of total new car registrations in the country during 2011 and 2012.[470] During 2013 plug-in electric passenger car registrations totaled 22,415 units, climbing 338% from 2012, the highest rate of growth of any country in the world in 2013.[454][466] The segment's market share surged almost ten times from 2012 to 5.37% new car sales in the country during that year, the world's second highest in 2013 after Norway (5.6%). The rapid growth of segment during 2013, allowed the Netherlands to reach a plug-in vehicle concentration of around 1.71 vehicles registered per 1,000 people, second only to Norway (4.04).[454] As of July 2016, the plug-in concentration had risen to 5.6 per 1,000 people.[469] The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 fell to 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations, after the end of some of the tax incentives.[388][471] With 43,769 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2015, the segment market share rose to a record 9.7% of new car sales in the Dutch market in 2015, the second highest after Norway (22.4%).[295][472]
In November 2013, a total of 2,736 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs were sold, making the plug-in hybrid the top selling new car in the country that month, representing a market share of 6.8% of all the new cars sold.[473][474] Again in December 2013, the Outlander P-HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales, contributing to a world record plug-in vehicle market share of 23.8% of new car sales.[475][476] The Netherlands is the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales.[473][474][476] The strong increase of plug-in car sles during the last months of 2013 was due to the end of the total exemption of the registration fee for corporate cars, which is valid for 5 years. From January 1, 2014, all-electric vehicles pay a 4% registration fee and plug-in hybrids a 7% fee.[471]
The top 5 best-selling plug-in electric cars in 2015 were all plug-in hybrids, led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (8,757). The top selling all-electric car was the Tesla Model S (1,842).[477] Plug-in car sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2015, with about 15,900 units sold, and allowing the segment to reach a record market share of about 23%. The surge in plug-in car sales was due to reduction of the registration fees for plug-in hybrids. From January 1, 2016, all-electric vehicles continue to pay a 4% registration fee, but for a plug-in hybrid the fee rises from 7% to 15% if its CO2 emissions do not exceed 50 g/km. The rate for a conventional internal combustion car is 25% of its book value.[478][479]
As a result of the changes in the tax rules that went into force at the beginning of 2016, plug-in electric car sales declined significantly. Sales during the first half of 2016 were down 64% from the same period in 2015.[480] A total of 9,185 plug-in passenger cars were registered in the first three quarters of 2016, consisting of 6,567 plug-in hybrids and 2,618 all-electric cars. The market share of the plug-in car segment captured 3.2% of new car sales during the period.[16] As of September 2016, the Outlander P-HEV remained as the all-time top-selling plug-in car in the country with 24,765 units registered. Ranking second is the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (14,917), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (9,530), Tesla Model S (5,622), and Audi A3 e-tron (5,098).[16] A distinct feature of the Dutch plug-in market is dominance of plug-in hybrids, which represented 86.2% (86,162) of the country's stock of 99,945 passenger plug-in electric cars and vans registered at the end of October 2016.[468]
United Kingdom
Since 2010 about 90,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until September 2016, including about 75,000 plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars, and about 4,000 plug-in commercial vans. This figure includes a significant number of registered plug-in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes.[485] Since the launch of the Plug-In Car Grant in January 2011, a total of 75,647 eligible cars have been registered through September 2016,[486] and, as of March 2016, the number of claims made through the Plug-in Van Grant scheme totaled 2,167 units since the launch of the scheme in 2012.[487] Before the introduction of series production plug-in vehicles, a total of 1,096 all-electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010.[488] Before 2011, the G-Wiz, a heavy quadricycle, listed as the top-selling EV for several years.[489]
The British market experienced a rapid growth of plug-in car sales during 2014, driven by the introduction of new models such as the BMW i3, Tesla Model S, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, and Renault Zoe.[492][493][494] Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple to 14,518 units in 2014.[492] In November 2014 the passenger plug-in segment's market share passed 1% of monthly new car sales for the first time in the UK.[495][496] The surge in demand for plug-in cars continued during 2015.[497] Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK totaled 28,188 units in 2015. The plug-in electric car segment raised its market share of new car sales in 2015 to almost 1.1%, up from 0.59% in 2014.[389][498] The plug-in segment reached a record market share of 1.7% of new car sales in the UK, the highest ever.[498] The top selling models in 2015 were the Outlander P-HEV with 11,681 units, followed by the Leaf (5,236), and the BMW i3 (2,213).[499]
Plug-in car sales in March 2016 achieved the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with 7,144 grant eligible cars registered.[502][503] Registrations during the first six months of 2016 recorded the highest-volume half-year ever for plug-in electric car registrations.[504] During the first three quarters of 2016 a total of 29,185 plug-in electric vehicles were registered, of which, 28,035 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Registrations consisted of 8,107 all-electric cars, up 16.6% year-on-year, and 21,078 plug-in hybrids, up 46.3% year-on-year.[486] During this period, sales of plug-in hybrids oversold pure electric cars, with the latter more than doubling sales of battery electric models.[505] During the first nine months of 2016 the plug-in car segment's market share reached 1.36% of new car sales. While overall new car registrations year-to-date increased 2.6% from the same period in 2015, total plug-in car registrations during the first nine months of 2016 increased 36.6% from a year earlier.[486] The Outlander P-HEV continued to lead sales of the plug-in electric segment during the first three quarters of 2016 with 7,770 units delivered. The Leaf continued as the top selling all-electric car with 3,728 units registered over the same period.[506]
By mid-October 2016, sales of the Outlander P-HEV passed the 25,000 unit mark, making the plug-in hybrid the all-time top selling plug-in car in the UK. Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV sales account for about 50% of all plug-in hybrid sold in the UK since 2010.[500] Cumulative sales of the Nissan Leaf, the second all-time best selling plug-in car and the top selling all-electric car ever, passed the 15,000 unit mark in September 2016, and also accounts for about 50% of total sales in the all-electric passenger car segment since 2010.[490]
Germany
As of September 2016, a total of 66,674 plug-in electric cars have been registered in Germany since 2010.[511] The country is the largest passenger car market in Europe, however ranks as the fifth largest plug-in market in Europe as of September 2016.[362][511] About 80% of the plug-in cars registered in the country through September 2016 were registered since January 2014.[390][510][512] The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013, before that, official statistics only registered all-electric vehicles because plug-in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids. As a result, the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug-in electric car registrations.[513]
The plug-in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced an explosive growth of 226.9% year-over-year, and the overall plug-in segment increased 75.5% from a year earlier.[390][509] Registrations of plug-in electric cars totaled 13,049 units in 2014. The plug-in segment achieved a market share of 0.4% of new car sales that year.[390] The BMW i3 ended 2014 as the top selling plug-in electric car with 2,233 units registered.[514] The surge in sales continued in 2015, the plug-in hybrid segment grew 125.1% year-over-year, while the all-electric segment climbed 91.2% from the previous year. In 2015, plug-in electric car registrations totaled 23,464 units, and the plug-in segment achieved a market share of 0.7% of new car sales.[510] The top selling models in 2015 were the Kia Soul EV (3,839), followed by the BMW i3 (2,271), and the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (2,128).[515]
During the first three quarters of 2016, sales of plug-in hybrids surpassed sales of all-electric cars for the first time in the country. A total of 17,074 units were registered, consisting of 7,678 all-electric cars and 9,396 plug-in hybrids. The plug-in segment achieved a market share of 0.7% of new car sales.[512] The top selling models during the first eight months of 2016 were the Renault Zoe (1,836), BMW i3 (1,237), Tesla Model S (978), Audi A3 e-tron (908), and Volkswagen Golf GTE (852).[516][517] The introduction of the federal government purchase e-bonus, in effect since May 2016, did not produce immediate effect on plug-in car sales until September 2016, when registrations peaked to 3,061 units, consisting of 1,641 all-electric cars, up 76.6% year-on-year, and 1,420 plug-in hybrids, up 36.8% year-on-year.[511][512] Combined registrations of both type of plug-in accounted for 1.1% of new car registrations, allowing the German plug-in market share to pass the 1% mark for the first time during 2016.[511][518]
Sweden
As of September 2016, a total of 26,463 plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in Sweden since 2011, consisting of 18,077 plug-in hybrids, 7,102 all-electric cars and 1,284 all-electric utility vans. The Swedish plug-in electric market is dominated by plug-in hybrids, representing 68.3% of the Swedish light-duty plug-in electric vehicle registrations through September 2016.[303][405][519][520][521][522] Sweden ranked among the world's top ten best-selling plug-in markets in 2015, listed as the ninth largest country market. The Swedish market was the sixth largest European plug-in market in 2015.[295]
In September 2011 the Swedish government approved a 200 million kr program, effective starting in January 2012, to provide a subsidy of 40,000 kr per car for the purchase of 5,000 electric cars and other "super green cars" with ultra-low carbon emissions, defined as those with emissions below 50 grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) per km.[523] After renewing appropriations for the super green car rebate several times, from 2016, only zero emissions cars are entitled to receive the full premium, while other super green cars, plug-in hybrids, receive half premium.[524]
Registrations of super clean cars increased five-fold in July 2014 driven by the end of the quota of 5,000 new cars eligible for the super clean car subsidy.[525][526][527] A total of 4,656 plug-in super clean passenger cars were registered in 2014, representing a 1.53% market share of new passenger cars registered in the country in 2014. Registrations of super clean cars were up 201% from 2013, while registrations of new passenger cars increased 12.7%.[303][520] The top selling plug-in electric cars in 2014 were the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with 2,289 units and the Volvo V60 PHEV with 745.[303] A total of 8,908 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in 2015, up 80% from 2014. The registered stock consisted of 5,625 plug-in hybrids, 2,962 all-electric cars and 321 all-electric utility vans.[519] The plug-in segment had a market share of 2.49% of new car sales in 2015.[519] The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV was the top selling plug-in car for a second year running with 3,302 units, followed by the Tesla Model S with 996 units.[519]
Registrations during the first three quarters of 2016 totaled 9,467 units, consisting of 7,228 plug-in hybrids, up 155.3% year-on-year, 2,041 all-electric cars, down 9.9% year-on-year, and 198 all-electric vans, down 24.1% year-on-year. Super clean car registrations totaled 9,106 units, up 78.8% from the same period in 2015.[522] Registrations of plug-in electric cars achieved a market share of 3.4% of all new cars registered, the world's second largest after Norway.[522] During the first three quarters of 2016 the Volkswagen Passat GTE listed as the top selling plug-in car with 2,885 units, followed by the Outlander P-HEV (1,094), Volvo V60 PHEV (907), Volvo XC90 T8 (692), Nissan Leaf (624), and Tesla Model S (620). The top selling all-electric utility van was the Renault Kangoo Z.E. with 120.[522] As of September 2016, the all-time top selling plug-in electric cars are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with 6,781 units registered, followed by the Volkswagen Passat GTE (3,156), Volvo V60 PHEV (2,907), Nissan Leaf (2,394) and Tesla Model S (1,882). The Renault Kangoo Z.E. continued as the all-time the leader in the plug-in commercial utility segment with 973 units.[303][405][519][522]
Canada
Cumulative sales of plug-in electric cars in Canada totaled about 25,000 new units through September 2016.[11][285] The Chevrolet Volt, released in 2011, is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the country, with cumulative sales of 6,707 units through June 2016, representing over 30% of all plug-in cars sold in the country.[10][528] Ranking second is the Tesla Model S with 4,396 units sold, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 3,815 units delivered, both as of June 2016.[285]
Quebec is the regional market leader in Canada, with about 11,000 plug-in electric cars registered as of September 2016, of which, 55% are plug-in hybrids. Registrations in the province totaled 3,100 units in 2015, representing a market share of 0.7% of new car sales, and 45% of total Canadian plug-in electric car sales that year.[529] In October 2016, the National Assembly of Quebec passed a new zero emission vehicle legislation that obliges major automakers selling cars in the Canadian province to offer their customers a minimum number of plug-in hybrid and all-electric models. Under the new law, 3.5% of the total number of autos sold by carmakers in Quebec have to be zero emissions vehicles starting in 2018, rising to 15.5% in 2020. A tradable credit system was created for those carmakers not fulfilling their quotas to avoid financial penalties. Quebec aims to have 100,000 zero emission vehicles on the road by 2020.[529][530]
As of December 2015, there were 18,451 highway legal plug-in electric cars registered in Canada, consisting of 10,034 (54%) all-electric cars and 8,417 (46%) plug-in hybrids.[531] Until 2014 Canadian sales were evenly split between all-electric cars (50.8)% and plug-in hybrids (49.2%).[532] The Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in Canada in 2015 with 2,010 units sold.[285][531] The Chevrolet Volt, with 2,544 units sold, ranked as the top selling plug-in car during the first three quarters of 2016.[285]
Top selling PEV models
All-electric cars and vans
The world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of almost 240,000 units through September 2016.[8] The United States is the world's largest Leaf market with over 100,000 units sold through October 2016.[348] The other two top markets are, as of September 2016, Japan with almost 70,000 units, and Europe with 64,000 units.[8][348] The European market is led by Norway with 18,591 new units registered up until September 2016.[348]
Ranking second is the all-electric Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of almost 145,500 cars as of September 2016,[9][10] with the United States as its leading market with about 84,000 units sold through September 2016.[12][319][325] Norway is the Model S largest overseas market, with 11,763 new units registered through September 2016,[412][413][440][535] followed by China with 5,524 units registered through September 2015.[536][537] The world's top selling all-electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E., with global sales of 23,219 electric vans delivered through June 2016.[399]
The following table presents global sales of the top selling highway-capable electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and June 2016. The table includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans with cumulative sales of about or over 20,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production all-electric car in 2008, the Tesla Roadster.
| Top selling highway legal electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and June 2016(1) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Market launch | Global sales | Sales through |
| Nissan Leaf | Dec 2010 | + 228,000 | Jun 2016[538] |
| Tesla Model S | Jun 2012 | 129,393 | Jun 2016[1] |
| Renault Zoe | Dec 2012 | 51,193 | Jun 2016[1] |
| BMW i3 | Nov 2013 | ~ 49,500(2) | Jun 2016[1] |
| Mitsubishi i-MiEV family | Jul 2009 | ~ 37,600 | Jun 2016[1] |
| BAIC EV series | 2012 | 33,809(3) | Jun 2016[342][345][539][540] |
| Volkswagen e-Golf | May 2014 | 24,498(4) | Jun 2016[283][541][542][543][544] |
| BYD e6 | Oct 2011 | 23,483(3) | Jun 2016[342][345][545][546][547] |
| JAC J3/iEV family | 2010 | 23,241(3) | Jun 2016[342][345][539][540][548][549] |
| Renault Kangoo Z.E. | Oct 2011 | 23,219 | Jun 2016.[399] |
| Cumulative global sales 2008 – June 2016 | ~925,000 | Jun 2016[295][297] | |
| Notes: (1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). Several models, such as the Chery QQ3 EV/eQ EV, Kandi EV and the Zotye Zhidou E20, are highway legal in China but do not meet this requirement. (2) BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant. (3) Sales in main China only. (4) Sales in Europe and the U.S. only. | |||
Plug-in hybrids
As of June 2016, the Volt/Ampera family is the world's best selling plug-in hybrid and the third best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf and the Model S. Chevrolet Volt and Opel/Vauxhaul Ampera combined sales totaled about 117,300 units worldwide, including just over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016.[1] Volt sales are led by the United States with 107,267 units delivered, followed by Canada with 8,296 units, both through October 2016.[348][551] The Netherlands is the leading Ampera market with 4,947 units registered as of December 2015.[552]
Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with about 107,000 units sold worldwide as of June 2016.[462] As of March 2016, Europe ranked as the Outlander P-HEV leading market with 65,529 units sold, followed by Japan with 33,730 units.[553] European sales are led by the Netherlands with 24,572 units registered,[554] followed by the UK with 21,053 units registered, both at the end of March 2016,[555] and Sweden with 4,433 units sold through November 2015.[556]
Ranking third is the first generation Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with 75,400 units sold worldwide through April 2016.[557] The United States is the market leader with 42,366 units delivered through June 2016.[541][558] Japan ranks next with about 22,100 units, followed by Europe with 10,500 units, both, through April 2016.[557] The leading European market is the Netherlands with 4,134 units registered as of 30 November 2015.[559] Production of the first generation Prius Plug-in ended in June 2015.[560] The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, the Toyota Prius Prime, was released in the United States in November 2016.[561]
The following table presents cumulative sales through June 2016 of those plug-in hybrid models that have sold about 10,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid vehicle in December 2008, the BYD F3DM.
| Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars between 2008 and June 2016 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Market launch | Global sales | Sales through |
| Chevrolet Volt(1) | Dec 2010 | ~117,300 | Jun 2016[1] |
| Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV | Jan 2013 | ~107,400 | Jun 2016[1] |
| Toyota Prius PHV | Jan 2012 | +75,400 | Jun 2016[1] |
| BYD Qin(2) | Dec 2013 | 56,191 | Jun 2016[1] |
| BYD Tang(2) | Jun 2015 | 37,509 | Jun 2016[1] |
| Ford Fusion Energi(3) | Feb 2013 | 35,118 | Jun 2016[283][285][327][541] |
| Ford C-Max Energi(4) | Oct 2012 | 30,692 | Jun 2016[283][285][343][541][542] |
| Volkswagen Golf GTE | Aug 2014 | 24,089 | Jun 2016[392][544] |
| Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid | Nov 2012 | 21,185 | Jun 2016[392][405][562][563] |
| SAIC Roewe 550 PHEV(2) | Nov 2013 | 20,422 | Jun 2016[342][564][565] |
| Audi A3 Sportback e-tron(5) | Aug 2014 | 18,467 | Jun 2016[285][392][541][544][566] |
| Volvo XC90 T8(5) | Aug 2015 | 9,044 | Jun 2016[283][285][541][542][544] |
| BMW i8(5) | Aug 2014 | 8,789 | Jun 2016[285][541][567][568][569] |
| Cumulative global sales Dec 2008 – June 2016 | ~620,000 | Jun 2016[295][297] | |
| Notes: (1) Includes Vauxhall/Opel Ampera sales in Europe, and Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand. This figure includes about 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through December 2015.[570] (2) Sales in China only. (3) Sales in the U.S. and Canada only. (4) Only includes European sales for 2015. (5) Only accounts for CYTD 2016 sales in Europe, U.S. and Canada. | |||
See also
- All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
- Electric car
- Electric car use by country
- Electric motorcycle
- Electric vehicle battery
- Electric vehicle warning sounds
- Hybrid tax credit (U.S.)
- List of electric cars currently available
- List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
- Neighborhood electric car
- New energy vehicles in China
- Plug In America
- Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
- RechargeIT (Google.org PHEV program)
- Renewable energy by country
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Cobb, Jeff (2016-08-10). "Global 10 Best-Selling Plug-In Cars Are Accelerating Forward". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-13. As of June 2016, cumulative global sales of the top selling plug-in electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf (over 228,000), followed by theTesla Model S (129,393), Votl/Ampera family (about 117,300), Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV (about 107,400), Toyota Prius PHV (over 75,400), BYD Qin (56,191), Renault Zoe (51,193), BMW i3 (around 49,500), Mitsubishi i-MiEV family (about 37,600) and BYD Tang (37,509).
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. See definition on pp. 2.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)". Center for Sustainable Energy, California. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
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Since the Nissan LEAF first went on sale in 2010, almost 240,000 units have been sold globally, with 64,000 of these on Europe’s roads; making it the world’s best-selling electric vehicle.
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- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-17). "China Now Ties US For Leadership In Cumulative Global Plug-In Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-17. As of September 2016, the U.S. and China are technically tied for first place as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market. The U.S. has cumulative plug-in car sales of 522,519 units while China has 521,649 domestically produced plug-in cars. Europe is still the world's largest regional market with almost 50,000 more units sold that both countries, totalling about 570,000 light-duty plug-in vehicles.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-02). "October 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-11-04. Tesla sales for 3Q 2016 have been restated based upon information provided from the company corresponding to U.S. sales during 3Q 2016. Tesla reported 9,156 Model S and 5,428 Model X sold during the third quarter of 2016. The combined effect of both models totaled 1,116 less units than originally estimated, so the revised current-year-to-date figure for sales through September is 108,397 units. The revised CYTD figure for Model S is 20,856 and 12,328 for the Model X. October sales figures already reflect this adjustment.
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- ↑ "Electric Vehicles: Turning Buzz into Reality". European Automobile Manufacturers Association. 2010-02-09. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
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- 1 2 "Consumer Energy Tax Incentives: Plug-In Hybrid Conversion Kits". U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- 1 2 "An Increasing Number of Member States Levy CO2-Based Taxation or Incentivise Electric Vehicles". European Automobile Manufacturers Association. 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
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- ↑ Kurani; et al. (2007-10-16). "Driving Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Reports from U.S. Drivers of HEVs converted to PHEVs, circa 2006–07" (PDF). Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2010-12-29. See definitions in pp. 1–2.
- ↑ Matthew A. Kromer & John B. Heywood (May 2007). "Electric Powertrains: Opportunities and Challenges in the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet" (PDF). Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2010-12-29. See definitions in pp. 30–31.
- 1 2 "Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Basics". Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, US DoE. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
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- 1 2 "How to Get a Plug-In Hybrid". CalCars. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
- ↑ "Plug-in Hybrid Conversions". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
- ↑ "Top 7 Issues for an Electric Car Conversion". HybridCars.com. 2009-06-02. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
- ↑ PRTM Management Consultants, Inc (April 2011). "The China New Energy Vehicles Program – Challenges and Opportunities" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 2013-04-22. See Acronyms and Key Terms, pp. v
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Saurin D. Shah (2009). David B. Sandalow, ed. Chapter 2: Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement (1st ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 29, 37 and 43. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. in "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009). Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability. Oxford University Press, New York. pp. 22–26 and 114–139. ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7.
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- ↑ "Electric Power Monthly: June 2010 Edition". U.S. Energy Information Administration. June 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-11. Prices correspond to average for March 2010 for the U.S. energy generation mix that month.
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- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-18). "Model Year 2016 Fuel Economy Guide - Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF). fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-18. See pp. 27–28 for all-electric vehicles and pp. 30–31 for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The average 2016 vehicle gets 25 mpg
- 1 2 3 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-11-16). "Model Year 2017 Fuel Economy Guide - Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF). fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-11-19. pp. 32–36.
- 1 2 3 4 5 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Fueleconomy.gov's Top Fuel Sippers (EPA Ratings, All Years)". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06. Excludes all-electric vehicles. Click on the tab "Top Fuel Sippers (EPA Ratings, All Years)" - The 2016 Volt has a combined fuel economy of 77 mpg-e. The BMW i3 REx has a combined fuel economy of 88 mpg-e, and ranks as the most efficient EPA-certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine.
- 1 2 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-18). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2015 Toyota Prius, 2016 Toyota Prius and 2016 Toyota Prius Eco". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-18. The average 2016 vehicle gets 25 mpg.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-08-14). "2016 Best and Worst Fuel Economy Vehicles - (excluding electric vehicles)". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-17. See the tab "Cars excl. EVs" – The Prius c is the most fuel efficient in the compact class and the conventional Prius is the most fuel efficient in the midsize class, and both rank ahead of the most fuel efficient in any other clars.
- ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-08-12). "Model Year 2015 Fuel Economy Guide - Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF). fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-17. pp. 31–34.
- ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-11-18). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2017 Hyundai Ioniq Electric". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
- 1 2 3 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-09-29). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2015 BMW i3 REX, 2016 BMW i3 REX, 2017 BMW i3 REX (94 Amp-hour battery), and 2017 BMW i3 BEV (94 Amp-hour battery)". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
- ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2014 BMW i3 BEV". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2013 Scion iQ EV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy and U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and (2016-09-20). "Compare Side-by-Syde - 2017 Chevrolet Bolt". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-20.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2014 Chvevrolet Spark EV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2013 Honda Fit EV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2013 Fiat 500e". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2015 Volkswagen e-Golf". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- 1 2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare side by side: 2013 Nissan Leaf/2014 Nissan Leaf/2015 Nissan Leaf/2016 Nissan Leaf (24 kW-hr battery pack)/2016 Nissan Leaf (30 kW-hr battery pack)". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2011–12 Electric Vehicles- 2012 Mitsubishi i-MiEV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2016 Fiat 500e". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2013 smart fortwo electric drive coupe". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2015 Kia Soul Electric". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2012 Ford Focus BEV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- 1 2 3 4 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2015 Tesla Model S 60 kW-hr/AWD - 70D/AWD - 90D/AWD - P90D". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- 1 2 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2015 Tesla Model S (85 kW-hr battery pack); 2014 Tesla Model S AWD (85 kW-hr battery pack); 2015 Tesla Model S AWD - 85D; and 2015 Tesla Model S AWD - P85D". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- 1 2 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2016 Tesla Model X AWD - 90D and P90D". Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2012 Tesla Model S". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2014/2015/2016 Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "2012/2013/2014 Toyota RAV4 EV". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2012/13/14/15 BYD e6". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2016/2015 Chevrolet Volt". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- ↑ Eric Loveday (2015-09-01). "Detailed Look At 2016 Chevrolet Volt EPA Ratings". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
- 1 2 3 4 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2016 Ford Fusion AWD, 2016 Honda Accord, 2016 Toyota Camry, and 2016 Toyota RAV4 AWD". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
- 1 2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-11-18). "Most Efficient EPA Certified Vehicles". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-11-19. Current Model Year excludes all-electric vehicles.
- ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2014-07-04). "Compare Side-by-Side: 2014 BMW i3 BEV & 2014 BMW i3 REx". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2014-07-26.
- 1 2 3 4 5 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-18). "Model Year 2016 Fuel Economy Guide - Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF). fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-18. See pp. 27-28 for all-electric vehicles and pp. 30-31 for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The average 2016 vehicle gets 25 mpg
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-08-14). "2015 Best and Worst Fuel Economy Vehicles - (excluding electric vehicles)". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-17. See the tab "Cars excl. EVs" - The Prius c is the most fuel efficient in the compact class and the conventional Prius is the most fuel efficient in the midsize class, and both rank ahead of the most fuel efficient in any other clars.
- 1 2 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-18). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2015 Toyota Prius, 2016 Toyota Prius and 2016 Toyota Prius Eco". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-18. The average 2016 vehicle gets 25 mpg.
- ↑ "Why are the VOLT and LEAF EVs measured in Miles Per Gallon". Electric Vehicle News. 2009-08-15. Retrieved 2011-02-21.
- ↑ LeSage, Jon (2016-10-05). "2017 Prius Prime Offers Industry's Best 'MPGe' and 25 Miles Electric Range". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-15.
- ↑ Halvorson, Bengt (2016-03-24). "2016 Toyota Prius Prime: details on 120 MPGe plug-in hybrid, all-electric mode". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-03-24.
- 1 2 3 4 5 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-08-12). "Model Year 2015 Fuel Economy Guide - Electric vehicles & Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF). fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-17. pp. 31-34
- ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-09-16). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2014/2015/2016 BMW i3 REx". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-19.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-04). "Fueleconomy.gov's Top Fuel Sippers (EPA Ratings, All Years)". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-05. Excludes all-electric vehicles. Click on the tab "Top Fuel Sippers (EPA Ratings, All Years)" - The 2013-2014 Chevrolet Volt has a combined fuel economy of 62 mpg-e, while 2016 Volt has a combined fuel economy of 77 mpg-e. The BMW i3 REx has a combined fuel economy of 88 mpg-e
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-08-14). "Top Fuel Sippers (EPA Ratings, All Years)". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-17. Current Model Year excludes all-electric vehicles.
- ↑ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2015-12-18). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2014 Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-18.
- 1 2 3 4 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (October 2014). "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014" (PDF). EPA. Retrieved 2014-10-12. See table 7.3 - Overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100.
- ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2016-03-18). "Compare Side-by-Side - 2017/2016 Chevrolet Volt". Fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2016-03-20.
- ↑ Eric Loveday (2015-09-01). "Detailed Look At 2016 Chevrolet Volt EPA Ratings". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
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- ↑ Staff (2016-04-27). "Bis zu 4.000 Euro Förderung für Elektroautos" [Up to 4,000 euros in funding for electric cars]. KFZ-betrieb (in German). Retrieved 2016-04-14.
- 1 2 "Prämie für E-Autos beschlossenWie komme ich jetzt an den Bonus?" [Premium For Electric Cars Decided, how do I get to the bonus?]. Bild (in German). 2016-05-18. Retrieved 2016-09-25.
- ↑ Staff (2016-07-04). "Bislang 175 Anträge für Elektroauto-Prämie" [175 applications for electric car-premium up today]. KFZ-betrieb (in German). Retrieved 2016-09-25.
- ↑ Bundesamt für Wirtschaft und Ausfuhrkontrolle (BAFA) (September 2016). "Elektromobilität (Umweltbonus)" [Electromobility (Environmental bonus)] (PDF) (in German). BAFA. Retrieved 2016-09-25.
- ↑ Woodyard, Chris (2010-07-14). "Obama pushes electric cars, battery power this week". USA Today.
- ↑ Jerry Mitlitski (2011-02-18). "Raising the Volt-Age: Is Obama's Goal of 1 Million Electric Vehicles on U.S. Highways by 2015 Realistic?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2012-05-11.
- ↑ Bill Vlasic & Matthew L. Wald (2012-06-11). "Shaky Battery Maker Claims an Advance". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ↑ Sharyl Attkisson (2012-06-02). "Electric vehicles fall drastically short of Obama's 1 million goal". CBS News. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ↑ David Shepardson (2012-04-17). "Battery-powered autos proving a tough sell". The Detroit News. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ↑ Melanie Mason & Patrick McGreevy (2014-09-21). "Gov. Jerry Brown signs bills to boost purchases of electric cars". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-09-22.
- ↑ "Ontario Paves The Way For Electric Vehicles". Newsroom Ontario. 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ↑ Eric Loveday (2011-04-11). "Quebec to offer plug-in vehicle rebates of up to C$8,000". AutoblogGreen. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ↑ "Running on Green Power! Electric Vehicles: 2011–2020 Québec Action Plan" (PDF). Gouvernement du Québec. 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-08. See Table Box 7 for the rebate details and how it changes by year.
- ↑ Sherry Boschert (2006). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada. ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
- ↑ Danny King (2011-06-20). "Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb". Edmunds.com Auto Observer. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
- 1 2 Jiang Xueqing (2014-01-11). "New-energy vehicles 'turning the corner'". China Daily. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- ↑ Stephen Edelstein (2015-11-03). "Polaris Updates GEM Low-Speed Electric Vehicles". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
- ↑ JATO Dynamics (November 2015). "From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 – 2015" (PDF). Valencia News. Retrieved 2015-11-21. pp. 5–7 and 13.
- 1 2 "Renault-Nissan Alliance hits milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold, maintains position as global EV leader" (Press release). Paris/Yokohama: Renault-Nissan Alliance. 2016-09-13. Retrieved 2016-09-13. The Alliance has sold its 350,000th electric vehicle since December 2010, when the Nissan LEAF went on sale. The milestone was achieved in August 2016.
- ↑ "Renault hands over the key to its 100,000th electric vehicle" (Press release). Oslo: Groupe Renault. 2016-09-09. Retrieved 2016-09-11.
- ↑ Haugneland, Petter (2016-09-12). "Nå har Renault solgt 100.000 elbiler" [Renault has now sold 100,000 EVs] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-09-12.
- 1 2 3 4 Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-07). "China's BYD Becomes World's Third-Largest Plug-in Car Maker". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
- ↑ Liu Wanxiang (2016-11-10). "乘联会：10月新能源乘用车销售3.1万辆 插电式车型环比下降44%" [By the Automobile Association: October new energy passenger car sales were 31,000, plug-in hybrids were down 44%] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2016-11-11. Sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 30,989 units in October 2016, consisting of 26,811 all-electric cars and 4,178 plug-in hybrids. BYD Auto sold 10,395 units consisting of 7,328 all-electric cars and 3,067 plug-in hybrids. A total of 3,118 e6s, 2,124 Qin EV300s, 1,943 e5s, 1,538 Qins and 1,529 Tangs were sold in October 2016.
- 1 2 3 4 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-12). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-06. The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 with 50,366 units sold, followed by the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000), the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (over 40,000), the BYD Qin (31,898) and the BMW i3 (24,057). The Model S is also the second-best seller ever with 107,148 sales since its mid-2012 launch, behind the Nissan Leaf and ahead of GM’s Volt/Ampera family, credited with 106,000 sales.
- 1 2 Kane, Mark (2016-11-05). "World's Top 10 Selling EVs Led By The Tesla Model S After Strong September". EV Sales Blog. InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-11-06.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-02-03). "2015 Top EV Automotive Groups". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-09-30). "World Top 10 August 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-10-02. More than 17,600 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs were sold during the first eight months of 2016.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-06). "December 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-02-13. Plug-in electric car sales in the U.S. totaled 114,248 units in 2015, consisting of 71,105 all-electric cars and 43,143 plug-in hybrids, with corresponding market shares of 0.25% and 0.41%. Sales in 2014 totaled 123,347 units.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-01-06). "December 2014 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-01-06. See sections: "December 2014 Plug-in Hybrid Car Sales Numbers" and "December 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers"
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Klippenstein, Matthew (October 2016). "Canadian Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-10-17. Tesla Model S sales figures from IHS data. Estimated Ford Energi model sales.
- ↑ "Three years since the market launch of BMW i. 100,000 electrified BMW on the road" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group Press Club Global. 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2016-11-07. Three year after the market launch of the BMW i3, the BMW Group has delivered more than 100,000 purely electric-powered cars and plug-in hybrids to customers worldwide. The BMW i3 alone has reached more than 60,000 units, and the BMW i8 has more than 10,000 delivered since the middle of 2014. Additionally, there are the approximately 30,000 iPerformance plug-in hybrids sold worldwide.
- 1 2 John Voelcker (2016-01-15). "Who Sold The Most Plug-In Electric Cars In 2015? (It's Not Tesla Or Nissan)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-01-17. BYD Auto delivered 31,898 Qins, 18,375 Tangs, and 7,029 e6s during 2015. Added to that are small numbers of the T3 small commercial van and e5 battery-electric compact sedan, along with 2,888 Denza EV compact hatchbacks built by its joint venture with Daimler. Altogether, BYD sold a total of 61,722 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China in 2015.
- ↑ Natasha Li (2016-03-04). "Alternative Energy Vehicles Account HALF of BYD's Profits for the Very First Time in 2015". Gasgoo Automotive News. Retrieved 2016-03-07. BYD Auto delivered 69,222 new energy vehicles in China in 2015, including buses, of which, a total of 61,722 were passenger vehicles, mostly plug-in hybrids, led by the Qin and Tang.
- 1 2 Justin Gerdes (2012-05-11). "The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-09-16). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-09-16. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.
- 1 2 Nic Lutsey (2015-09-29). "Global milestone: The first million electric vehicles". International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). Retrieved 2015-10-10.
- ↑ "The Electric Vehicle World Sales Database: Stable 60:40 Ratio". EV-Volumes. Archived from the original on 2016-10-17. Retrieved 2016-10-17.
- ↑ Clark, Pilita; Campbell, Peter (2016-08-31). "Motor Industry: Pressure on the Pump". Financial Times. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
- 1 2 3 Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (2016-03-28). "Fact #918: March 28, 2016 – Global Plug-in Light Vehicles Sales Increased By About 80% in 2015". Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-18). "Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-12. About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. Plug-in hybrids represent about 40% of global plug-in electric vehicle sales. The United States is the leading market with 411,120 units sold since 2008, followed by China with 258,328 units sold since 2011. Japan ranks third, followed by the Netherlands (88,991), Norway (77,897), France (74,291), and the UK (53,254). Over 21,000 units were sold in Japan in 2015.
- ↑ Berman, Brad (2016-02-13). "US Falls Behind Europe and China in Global Plug-in Vehicle Market". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
- 1 2 3 Jose, Pontes (2016-07-28). "World Top 20 June 2016 (Special Edition)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-18. Global light-duty plug-in vehicles sales totaled 306,639 units during the first half of 2015, of which, 40% were plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Top-selling light-duty plug-in electrified vehicle global markets". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30. See graph: Top-selling light-duty plug-in electrified vehicle global markets (Cumulative sales through July 2016 by country/region)
- 1 2 3 4 Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-28). "China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-28. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.
- 1 2 3 4 Liu Wanxiang (2016-10-12). "中汽协：同比增速放缓 9月新能源汽车销量攀升至4.4万辆" [Automobile Association: slowdown ends, new energy vehicle sales in September rose to 44 000] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 44,000 units in September 2016, consisting of 35,000 all-electric vehicles and 9,000 plug-in hybrids. Total car sales during the first nine months of 2016 totaled 19,360,000 units.
- ↑ "Global Electric Bus Market 2015 – Size, Share, Development, Growth and Demand Forecast to 2020". Research and Markets (Press release). Dublin: Reuters. 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jeff Cobb (2015-02-18). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2014". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bil Sweden (2015-01-02). "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" [New registrations in December 2014 (preliminar)] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-01-04. Download file "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" see tables: "Nyregistrerade supermiljöbilar december 2014" with summary of plug-in passenger car registrations by model for 2013 (revised) and 2014, and table "Nyregistrerade eldrivna lätta lastbilar (högst 3,5 ton) per modell:" for plug-in utility vans registrations for the same two years. A total of 303,866 new passenger vehicles were registered in 2014, and a total of 4,656 super clean cars, resulting in a PEV market share of 1.53% of new car sales.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2016-02-15). "PHEVs – Take off or transitory blip?". AID Newsletter. Retrieved 2016-02-19. Market share only includes Western European countries. A total of 95,140 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in Europe in 2015.
- 1 2 Jose, Pontes (2016-02-03). "Markets Roundup December 2015 (Special Edition)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17. For countries with top PEV market share in 2015 see "Engines of Growth:" Hong Kong 4.84%, Denmark 2.29%, Sweden 2.62%, and Switzerland 1.98%.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-01-29). "Iceland December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17. Plug-in electric car sales in Iceland reached a market share of 2.93%f of new car sales in 2015.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-10). "Denmark December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15.
Denmark's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.88% of total new car sales.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-18). "Switzerland December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15.
Switzerland's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.75% of total new car sales.
- ↑ Statistik Austria (2016-03-16). "Kraftfahrzeuge – Neuzulassungen: Neuzulassungen nach Jahren" [Motor vehicles – registrations: Registrations by year] (in German). Statistik Austria. Retrieved 2016-03-20. Download the file "Kfz-Neuzulassungen Jänner bis Dezember 2015." A total of 2,778 passenger plug-in electric cars were sold in Austria in 2015 (consisting of 1,677 all-electrics, 931 gasoline-powered plug-in hybrids, and 170 diesel-powered plug-in hybrids) out of 308,555 passenger cars, resulting in a market share of 0.90% (see pp. 78 PDF version).
- 1 2 3 California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA) (February 2016). "California New Vehicle Registrations Expected to Remain Above 2 Million Units in 2016" (PDF). CNCDA. Retrieved 2016-02-17. Registrations through December 2015 since 2011. Revised figures for 2014.
- ↑ U.S. Department of Energy (January 2013). "EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), US DoE. Retrieved 2013-02-24. See pp. 5.
- ↑ Voelcker, John (2016-11-02). "Electric car sales remain ahead of hybrids after five years". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
- ↑ Melissa C. Lott (2013-02-20). "Electric Vehicle Deployment – Where Should We Be Today?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
- ↑ Pike Research (2012-10-31). "Ford, Toyota Will Lead Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales in the U.S. Through 2020, Forecasts Pike Research". Market Watch. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-02. See other figures in graphs.
- ↑ Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA) (October 2016). "Electric Drive Sales Dashboard". EDTA. Retrieved 2016-10-19. Sales figures sourced from HybridCars.com and direct reports submitted by EDTA member companies. Sales reported do not include the Fisker Karma
- ↑ HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. "HybridCars Dashboard". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
- 1 2 3 Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-04). "Plug-in Cars Have Their Best-Ever US Sales in September". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
- ↑ Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-14). "California Celebrates One-Quarter Million Plug-in Cars Sold". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
- ↑ Stacy C. Davis; Susan W. Diegel & Robert G. Boundy (July 2014). "Transportation Energy Data Book Edition 33" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2014-09-02. See Table 6.5: Hybrid and Plug-in Vehicle Sales, 1999–2013, pp. 6–9.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-04). "September 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-10-04. A total of 109,513 plug-in cars were sold between January and September 2016, consisting of 60,640 all-electric cars and 48,873 plug-in hybrids, together representing a 0.83% market share of new car sales.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2013-01-08). "December 2012 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2013-01-14. See the section: December 2012 Plug-in Electric Car Sales Numbers. A total of 53,172 plug-in electric vehicles were sold during 2012. Sales of the Fisker Karma, Coda and Wheego are not included, as these carmakers do not report monthly sales on a regular basis.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2014-01-06). "December 2013 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-03-21. Shows U.S. total sales for 2012 and 2013.
- ↑ Cobb, Jeff (2016-02-17). "California Plug-in Sales Led The US Last Year With Nearly Five-Times Greater Market Share". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-18. California's plug-in electric car market share was 3.1%, ranking behind only two countries, the Netherlands (9.7%) and Norway (22.7%). The administrative territory of Hong Kong also had a higher market share of 4.8%.
- ↑ Tesla Motors (2016-02-10). "Tesla Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2015 Update" (PDF). Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2016-02-12. A total of 17,478 units were delivered globally during the fourth quarter of 2015, including 206 Model X vehicles. Model S sales in the United States totaled 16,689 units in 2014 and 25,202 in 2015.
- 1 2 China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2016-01-20). "New energy vehicles enjoyed a high-speed growth". CAAM. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
- 1 2 China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2015-01-14). "The sales and production of new energy vehicles boomed". CAAM. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
- ↑ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (2012-01-16). "5,579 electric cars sold in China in 2011". Wind Energy and Electric Vehicle Review. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- ↑ Cars21.com (2013-02-13). "EV sales increase 103.9% in China in 2012– Electric China Weekly No 17". Cars21.com. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-05-11). "China Reports 500,000th Plug-in Vehicle Sold". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-05-12. The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 passed the 500,000 unit milestone in March 2016, consisting of 366,219 all-electric vehicles (72.9%) and 136,353 plug-in hybrids (27.1%). With 31,772 NEVs sold in April 2016, cumulative sales totaled 534,344 NEVs between January 2011 and April 2016.
- ↑ Staff (2016-05-11). "中汽协：4月新能源汽车产销同步破3万辆 同比增长近2倍" [Automobile Association: April sales of new energy vehicles sync break 30,000, an increase of nearly 2-fold] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2016-07-31. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 31,772 units in April 2016, consisting of 23,908 all-electric vehicles and 7,864 plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2016-06-29). "New energy vehicles kept a high-speed growth". CAAM. Retrieved 2016-07-31. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 35,000 units in May 2016, consisting of 26,000 all-electric vehicles and 9,000 plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2016-07-22). "New energy vehicles kept a high-speed growth". CAAM. Retrieved 2016-07-31. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 44,000 units in June 2016, consisting of 34,000 all-electric vehicles and 10,000 plug-in hybrids. Cumulative sales of new energy vehicles in China during the first half of 2016 totaled 170,000 units, consisting of 126,000 all-electric vehicles and 44,000 plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2016-08-15). "New energy vehicles kept a high-speed growth". CAAM. Retrieved 2016-10-12. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 36,000 units in July 2016, consisting of 26,000 all-electric vehicles and 10,000 plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ Liu Wanxiang (2016-09-09). "中汽协：8月新能源汽车产量回升至4.2万辆 同比增幅达82%" [August new energy vehicle production rose to 42,000 an increase of 82%] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 38,000 units in August 2016, consisting of 28,000 all-electric vehicles and 10,000 plug-in hybrids.
- 1 2 3 Liu Wanxiang (2016-10-12). "乘联会：9月新能源乘用车销量维持3万辆水平 同比增速65%" [By the Automobile Association: September new energy passenger car sales maintains the level of 30,000 and year-on-year growth of 65%] (in Chinese). D1EV.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12. Sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 29,699 units in September 2016, consisting of 22,236 all-electric vehicles and 7,463 plug-in hybrids. Total new energy passenger car sales during the first nine months of 2016 totaled 209,359 units (see pie graph).
- ↑ Majeed, Abdul (2016-09-29). "China faces acid test in vehicle emissions". Business Line. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Staff (2015-01-14). "2014 EV Sales Ranking". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-02-07. A total of 5,234 E150 EVs (EV200), and about 1,000 J3 EVs were sold in China in 2014.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-02-11). "2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15.
- 1 2 3 4 Staff (2016-01-14). "Sales Ranking of China-made Pure-electric Cars in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-08-16. A total of 16,488 BAIC E-Series EVs, and over 9,000 JAC iEVs were sold in China in 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2016-02-13). "Best-selling China-made SUVs in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-01-17. A total of 18,375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-14). "Sales Ranking of China-made Pure-electric Cars in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-02-10. A total of 16,736 Kandi EVs, 16,488 BAIC E-Series EVs, and 15,467 Zotye Z100 EVs were sold in China in 2015.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-01). "Nissan Leaf Second Plug-in Ever To Sell 100,000 In US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-01. Since December 2010, about 239,000 Leafs have been sold worldwide through September 2016. The U.S. is the world's largest market with 100,241 units sold through October 2016. Ranking second is Japan with 69,833 units followed by Europe with about 63,000 units, both, through September 2016.
- ↑ International Energy Agency, Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (April 2013). "Global EV Outlook 2013 – Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2013-04-20. See pp. 4, 6–8, and 11–12.
- ↑ Kane, Mark (2016-04-02). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales Visualized From 2011 to 2015". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
- ↑ Shirouzu, Norihiko; Lienert, Paul (2015-10-28). "Auto power play: Japan's hydrogen car vs China's battery drive". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
- ↑ Deign, Jason (2015-02-10). "Japan Makes a Big Bet on the Hydrogen Economy". Green Tech Media. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
- 1 2 Jose, Pontes (2016-02-08). "Japan December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2014-01-30). "Nissan LEAF Sales In Japan Up 17% in 2013". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
- 1 2 "三菱 i-MiEVなどの2014年12月度 生産・販売実績" [Mitsubishi i-MiEV production and sales results for December 2014] (in Japanese). Electric Vehicle News. 2015-01-28. Retrieved 2015-02-18..
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-30). "Japan December 2013". EV Sales. Retrieved 2014-02-19. Excludes sales of Nissan NMC units (45), which is a low-speed neighborhood vehicle.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-30). "Japan December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2015-02-09). "Nissan LEAF Sales In Japan Up 9% To 14,000 In 2014". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18. A total of 14,177 units were sold in Japan during 2014.
- ↑ Kane, Mark (2016-10-31). "Nissan LEAF Sales In Japan Up 21% In September, But Start To Show Model Fatigue". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-10-31. A total of 12,134 Leafs were sold in Japan during the first nine months of 2016, and a total of 69,833 units since its inception.
- 1 2 "三菱 アイミーブなどの2016年８月度 販売実績" [Mitsubishi i-MiEV production and sales results for August 2016]. Electric Vehicle News (in Japanese). 2016-09-28. Retrieved 2016-10-01. A total of 34,830 Outlander P-HEVs have been sold in Japan through August 2016.
- ↑ Kane, Mark (2016-09-19). "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sales In Japan Down Nearly 90% In July". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-10-01.
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-06-15). "Europe Buys Its 500,000th Plug-in Vehicle". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-06-15.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Association Nationale pour le Développement de la Mobilité Electrique – AVERE France (2016-03-24). "Quelle est la place de la France sur le marché européen du véhicule électrique ?" [What is the place of France in the European electric vehicle market] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-03-27. A total of 97,687 all-electric vehicles, including vans, were registered in the European market in 2015, up from 65,199 in 2014 (+49.8%). The top selling electric cars were the Renault Zoe (18,727), Tesla Model S (15,515), Nissan Leaf (15,455), and the Volkswagen e-Golf (11,110). The Renault Kangoo Z.E. registered 4,328 units in Europe in 2015.
- ↑ European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (February 2016). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alaternative Fuel Type In The European Union Quarter 4 2015" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2016-02-08. See table Electric Vehicles: Total Europe (EU+EFTA), 186,170 registered units in 2015 (includes Norway and Switzerland). For Denmark and Romania only pure electric vehicles are included. Electric Vehicles = pure electric vehicles (BEV) + extended‐range electric vehicles (EREV) + plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) + fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV).
- ↑ European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2016-10-28). "New Passenger Car Registrations by Alternative Fuel Type in the European Union – Quarter 3 2016" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2016-11-02. A total of 143,315 new passenger plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries during the first nine months of 2016, consisting of 65,270 all-electric cars and 76,037 plug-in hybrids (See tables pp. 2 and 3). Light-duty utility vans are not included.
- 1 2 3 4 Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) (2016-10-13). "15 av 100 nye biler er fortsatt elbiler" [15 of 100 new cars are still electric cars] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening. Retrieved 2016-10-15. See graph "Antall elbiler of ladbare hybrider i Norge" for number of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids in Norway by year.
- 1 2 3 Fergusson, Malcolm (October 2016). "Electric Vehicles in Europe - 2016: Approaching adolescence" (PDF). Transport & Environment. Retrieved 2016-10-13. See pp. 15-16.
- 1 2 Automobile Propre (August 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d'utilitaires électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-10-02. See "Ventes d’utilitaires électriques en 2016/2015/2014 for all-electric utility van registrations. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014, and rose to 1.30% in 2015.
- 1 2 3 European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE) (2012-11-26). "AVERE Data Collection – from June to August 2012" (PDF). AVERE. Retrieved 2015-02-21. See Figure 1.1 Electric Vehicle sales in Europe since 2010. Only pure electric cars are reported. In 2010 there were no production plug-in hybrids in sale in Europe.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2011-01-17). "2010 Europe: Car Sales Statistics by Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,785,698 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2010.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mat Gasnier (2013-02-10). "Europe Full Year 2012: Now with Top 350 models & Top 60 brands". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-02-13. A total of 1,728 Leafs were sold in Europe in 2011 and 5,210 in 2012. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 5,268 units in 2012 and 304 in 2011.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2012-01-17). "2011 Full Year Car Sales by European Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,768,401 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2011.
- 1 2 3 4 5 AVERE-France (2014-03-14). "Europe – Les ventes de véhicules électriques en hausse en 2013" [Europe – Sales of electric vehicles on the rise in 2013] (in French). AVERE-France. Retrieved 2015-01-21.
- 1 2 Jose Pontes (2013-02-03). "Europe Full Year 2012". EV sales. Retrieved 2013-01-12. During 2012 a total of 3,496 Prius PHV, 609 Chevrolet Volts and 247 Fisker Karmas were sold in Europe.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2013-01-16). "2012 (Full Year) Europe: Best-Selling Car Manufacturers and Brands". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 12,527,912 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (February 2015). "New Electric Vehicles Registrations In The European Union" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2015-02-18. See table Total Electrically Charged Vehicles: Total Europe (EU+EFTA), 65,071 registered units for 2013 and 97,791 units for 2014. For Denmark, Ireland and Romania includes only pure electric vehicles. Total Electrically Charged Vehicles = Pure Electric Vehicles + Extended‐Range Electric Vehicles + Plug‐In Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2014-01-20). "2013 (Full Year) Europe: Best-Selling Car Manufacturers, Brands and Models". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 12,308,215 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2013.
- 1 2 AVERE France (2015-01-30). "En Europe, le marché du véhicule électrique a progressé de + 60,9 % en 2014" [In Europe, the electric vehicle market grew by 60.9% in 2014] (PDF) (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-11-21. A total of 65,199 electric cars and utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014, up 60.9% from 2013. Passenger cars represented 87% of total all-electric registrations.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2015-01-21). "2014 (Full Year) Europe: Car Sales by EU Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,006,451 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2014.
- ↑ "Opel Ampera – a Pioneer of Green Mobility Europe's Most Successful Passenger EV". The European Financial Review. 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
- 1 2 Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2016-09-21). "Europeans are turning to PHEVs" (PDF). AID. Retrieved 2016-09-27.
- ↑ Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2016-08-25). "Europe's July electric car sales stumble for 3rd month running". AID. Retrieved 2016-09-27.
- ↑ Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2016-09-20). "Europeans are turning to PHEVs". AID. Retrieved 2016-09-27.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (March 2014). "Cijfers elektrich vervoer – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland" [Figures electric transport – Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands] (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2014-03-16.
- ↑ Zachary Shahan (2014-02-26). "Top European Countries For 100%-Electric Car Sales & Plug-In Hybrid Electric Car Sales (Charts)". Clean Technica. Retrieved 2014-03-16.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2014-08-04). "Europe – Plus de 40.000 véhicules rechargeables vendus au premier semestre 2014" [Europe – Over 40,000 plug-in vehicles sold in the first half of 2014] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2014-08-25.
- ↑ AVERE-France (2015-01-30). "Immatriculations de véhicules électriques en Europe : +60% en 2014 !" [Registrations of electric vehicles in Europe: +60% in 2014] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2014-02-23.
- 1 2 3 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Special: Analyse over 2014" [Special: Analysis over 2014] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-02-24. See total 2014 registration by type of PEV under the heading "31-12-2014". The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 was 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations.
- 1 2 3 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2015-01-07). "December 2014 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 14,518 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2014, consisting of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids, up from 3,586 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013. A total of 2,476,435 new cars were registered in 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2015). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2014" [New Registrations Barometer December 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-27. A total of 13,049 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany during 2014, consisting of 8,522 all-electric cars and 4,527 plug-in hybrids.
- 1 2 3 4 Mark Kane (2014-01-20). "8,197 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sold In Europe In 2013; Almost All In Netherlands". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Gibbs, Nick (2016-03-15). "Hybrid sales expected to triple in Europe as tougher CO2 rules loom". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2016-02-22. Sales in Europe as reported by JATO Dynamics: Mitsubishi Ourlander sales totaled 19,853 units in 2014 and 31,214 in 2015; VW Golf GTE sales totaled 1,097 units in 2014 and 17,300 in 2015; Audi A3 e-tron sales totaled 1,154 units in 2014 and 11,791 in 2015; Volvo V60 sales totaled 5,441 units in 2014 and 6,349 in 2015. During 2015 a total of 5,481 all-electric BMW i3s and 6,566 i3 REx models (total 12,047). A total of 3,940 i3 REx models were sold in 2014.
- 1 2 Nissan Newsroom Europe (2014-02-12). "Nissan LEAF the best-selling EV in Europe in 2013". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2014-02-13. A total of 11,120 Leafs were sold in Europe in 2013.
- ↑ Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield (2015-01-19). "Nissan LEAF Electric Car Still Top in Europe After Four Years. Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Top Plug-in for 2014". Transport Evolved. Retrieved 2015-01-19.
- ↑ Groupe Renault (January 2015). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2015-02-22. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "+ Voir plus" to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" – Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" – "XLSX – 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" for 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 sales, and open the tab "Sales by Model".
- ↑ Ida Warner (2016-02-15). "Over 100.000 ladbare biler i Norden" [Over 100,000 plug-in cars in the Nordic countries]. Insero.com (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-02-15. Out of over 100,000 plug-in passenger cars registered in the Nordic countries at the end of 2015, a total of 74,883 were registered in Norway, 16,187 in Sweden, 7,926 in Denmark, and 1,479 in Finland (see graph).
- ↑ Cobb, Jeff (2016-02-16). "Nordic Countries Buy Their 100,00th Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
- 1 2 "Renault-Nissan Alliance Sales Rise For Fifth Straight Year In 2014 To 8.5 Million Vehicles" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Motor Corporation. 2015-02-04. Retrieved 2016-03-27. Cumulative Leaf sales in Europe totaled 33,481 units at the end of 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Groupe Renault (July 2016). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2016-07-29. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "Ventes mensuelles (juin 2016)" to download the file "XLSX – 240 Ko" for CYTD sales through June 2016, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" (See more) to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" – Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" – "XLSX – 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" – "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX – 227 Ko" for 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 sales. Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Nissan LEAF is the best-selling electric car in Europe for fourth year in a row" (Press release). Rolle, Switzerland: Nissan Europe. 2015-01-19. Retrieved 2016-03-27. A total of 14,658 Nissan Leafs, 8,734 Tesla Model S, 5,804 pure electric BMW i3s and 3,328 Volkswagen e-Golfs were sold in Europe in 2014.
- 1 2 Neil Winton (2014-02-06). "Electric Car Sales In Western Europe Spurt, But From Miniscule Base". Automotive Industry Data (AID). Forbes. Retrieved 2014-03-16. AID sales figures (38,617 units) include all-electric cars and range-extenders vehicles in Germany. Sales figures based on Automotive Industry Data (AID). About 3,900 Tesla Model S cars were sold in Europe in 2013.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2014-07-19). "World Full Year 2013: Discover the Top 1000 best-selling models!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-07-27. A total of 1,477 i3s were registered in 2013. Includes press fleet vehicles and dealer demonstrators.
- 1 2 Nick Gibbs (2015-04-24). "Plug-ins poised to be Europe's top electrified drivetrain". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2016-03-30. A total of 5,441 Volvo V60 PHEVs and 933 Opel Amperas were sold in Europe in 2014.
- ↑ Graeme Roberts (2014-10-24). "Vehicle Analysis: Mitsubishi's top-selling Outlander PHEV". Just auto. Retrieved 2015-04-26. A total of 8,066 Volvo V60 plug-in hybrids were sold in 2013.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "2012 (Full Year) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars & Plug-In Hybrid Models". BestSellingCars.com. 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-07-05. 42 Volvo V60 plug-in hybrids were sold in Sweden in 2012.
- ↑ Toyota Europe Press Release (2013-01-09). "Toyota Motor Europe 2012 Sales Up 2% (+15,583 Units) In A Sharply Declining Market". Toyota Europe. Retrieved 2013-04-14. A total of 3,496 Prius PHEVs sold in Europe in 2012.
- ↑ "Record hybrid sales push Toyota Motor Europe market share and volume gains" (Press release). Toyota Motor Europe. 2014-01-14. Retrieved 2016-03-26. A total of 4,591 Prius PHEVs were sold in Europe 2013.
- ↑ Autocar Pro (2015-01-16). "Record hybrid sales for Toyota In Europe". Autocar Professional. Retrieved 2015-02-22. A total of 1,352 Prius PHV were sold in Europe in 2014.
- ↑ Torregrossa, Michaël (2016-01-29). "Toyota a vendu 209000 voitures hybrides en Europe en 2015" [Toyota sold 209,000 hybrid cars in Europe in 2015] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-03-26. A total of 932 Prius PHEVs were sold in Europe in 2015.
- ↑ Mike Colias (2014-07-21). "Opel will discontinue weak-selling Ampera, sources say". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2014-08-13. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 3,184 units in 2013.
- 1 2 Staff (2014-01-08). "Over 20.000 ladbare biler på norske veier" [Over 20,000 rechargeable electric cars on Norwegian road] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
- 1 2 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2014" [Car sales in 2014] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-01-14. A total of 10,639 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2013, consisting of: 7,885 new electric cars, 2,086 used imported all-electric cars, 328 new plug-in hybrid cars and 340 new all-electric vans. A total of 23,390 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2014, consisting of: 18,094 new electric cars, 3,063 used imported all-electric cars, 1,678 new plug-in hybrid cars and 555 new all-electric vans.
- 1 2 3 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2015" [Car sales in 2015] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2016-03-05. Registrations of new plug-in electric vehicles totaled 25,779 electric cars (zero emission vehicles totaled 25,788 accounting for 9 hydrogen vehicles), 7,964 plug-in hybrids and 712 all-electric vans in 2015. In addition, registrations of used imports totaled 5,122 electric cars and 55 electric vans. Plug-in electric vehicle registrations totaled 39,632 units.
- ↑ Petter Haugneland (2015-04-20). "50.000 elbiler på norske veier!" [50,000 electric cars on Norwegian roads!] (in Norwegian). Norsk elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2015-04-21.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-20). "Norway Celebrates 50,000th Plug-in Car Sold; Will EV Incentives Continue?". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-20.
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-05-09). "Norway Is Fourth Country To Register 100,000 Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09. As of April 2016, the United States is the leading country market with a stock of about 450,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles delivered since 2008. China ranks second with around 300,000 units sold since 2011, followed by Japan with about 150,000 plug-in units sold since 2009, both through March 2016. European sales are led by Norway with over 100,000 units registered by the end of April 2016.
- ↑ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-05-17). "Dossier : A la découverte du véhicule électrique en Norvège" [Dossier: Discovering the electric vehicle in Norway] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-19. In April 2016 Norway just exceeded the threshold of 100 000th registered electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids included.
- ↑ Figenbaum, Erik; Kolbenstvedt, Marika (June 2016). "Learning from Norwegian Battery Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle users". Institute of Transport Economics (TØI), Norwegian Centre for Transport Research. Retrieved 2016-08-17. TØI report 1492/2016. See pp. 1.
- ↑ Alister Doyle & Nerijus Adomaitis (2013-03-13). "Norway shows the way with electric cars, but at what cost?". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
- ↑ Joly, David (2015-10-16). "Norway is A Model For Encouraging Electric Car Sales". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
- ↑ Agence France-Presse (2011-05-15). "Electric cars take off in Norway". The Independent. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
- ↑ AVERE (2012-06-07). "Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018". AVERE. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
- ↑ Klippenstein, Matthew (2014-04-08). "One Percent Of Norway's Cars Are Already Plug-In Electrics". Green Car Reports.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-17). "Norway Electric Car Incentives Will Hit Sales Cap Next Week". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
- ↑ Petter Haugneland (2016-02-29). "Nasjonal transportplan: Elbil er klimaløsningen" [National Transport: EV is the climate solution] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-03-04.
- ↑ "Number of electric cars worldwide climbs to 1.3 million" (PDF) (Press release). Stuttgart: Zentrum für Sonnenenergieund Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (ZSW). 2016-02-26. Retrieved 2016-03-04. Around 3% of some 2.64 million cars in Norway run on electricity by the end of 2015 (includes all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids).
- ↑ Haugneland, Petter (2016-09-16). "Mandal først ute med fortsatt gratis parkering for elbil" [Mandal pioneered to keep free parking for electric cars] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-09-17.
- ↑ "Over 10.000 ladbare biler på norske veier" [Over 10,000 plug-in cars in Norwegian roads] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2013-02-10. A total of 2.298 new Leafs and 189 used-imports were registered in Norway during 2012. Total cumulative sales do not include the imports registered in 2012.
- ↑ Neil Winton (2015-02-03). "Electric Car Sales Jump In Europe, But Likely To Stall Soon". Forbes. Retrieved 2015-02-21. Automotive Industry Data (AID) sales figures include only all-electric cars. A total of 8,290 BMW i3s were sold in 2014.
- ↑ Ståle Frydenlund (2016-07-05). "15 av 100 nye biler var elbiler" [15 out of 100 cars were electric vehicles] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2016-07-26.
- ↑ Grant, Alex. "PHEV boom drives 43% electric vehicle sales in Norway". EV Fleet World.
- ↑ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (April 2016). "2597 nullutslippsbiler" [2,597 zero-emission vehicles] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2016-04-13. A total of 2,597 new zero emission cars were registered in Norway in March 2016 (including two hydrogen cars), representing an 18.7% market share among new passenger cars registered that month. In addition, a total of 2,051 new plug-in hybrid cars were registered , representing a market share of 14.8% of the 13,875 new cars registered in March 2016.
- ↑ Ståle Frydenlund (2014-04-02). "Tesla knuste 28 år gammel rekord" [Tesla broke 28-year-old record] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2014-04-05.
- ↑ John D. Stoll (2014-04-02). "Tesla Breaks Norway's All-Time Sales Record". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2014-04-03.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-08-05). "Norway July 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-21.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-10-12). "Norway September 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12.
- ↑ Fred Magne Skillebæk (2016-10-11). "Bilsalget september 2016 - Full fart forover!" [Car sales in September 2016 - Full speed ahead!]. Dinside.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2016-10-11.
- ↑ Hegvold, Ola (2016-12-02). "BMW med elbil-sjokk i november" [BMW with electric vehicle shock in November]. Adressa (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2016-12-03.
- 1 2 Frydenlund, Brett; Haugneland, Peter (2016-01-06). "Nesten 26.000 nye elbiler i fjor" [Nearly 26,000 new electric cars last year]. Norsk Elbilforening (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (October 2016). "Bilsalget i september" [Car sales in September] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
- ↑ Fred Magne Skillebæk (2016-08-14). "Elbil eller ladbar hybrid?" [BEV or PHEV?]. Dinside.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2016-10-09.
- ↑ "Nissan LEAF is one of the top three 2016 passenger cars in Norway" (Press release). Oslo: Nissan. 2016-06-27. Retrieved 2016-07-30.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Autoactu.com (May 2016). "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations de voitures électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric car registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2016-05-14. See "Ventes de voitures électriques en 2016/2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010" It shows all electric car registrations between 2010 and 2016.
- 1 2 3 4 AVERE-France (2014-01-08). "Baromètre AVERE-France Janvier 2014" [Barometer AVERE-France January 2014] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ↑ Justin Aschard (2012-11-07). "Novembre 2012 – Ventes de véhicules électriques (CCFA)" [November 2012 – Sales of electric vehicles (CCFA)] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique. Retrieved 2013-02-16. See table Bilan annuel des ventes de véhicules électriques (Annual sales of electric vehicles) for detailed sales by category during 2010 and 2011.
- ↑ France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2013-01-07). "Bilan des Immatriculations pour l'Année 2012" [Record Registrations for 2012] (in French). AVERE. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-16. A total of 5,663 electric cars and 3,651 electric vans were registered in France in 2012.
- 1 2 3 AVERE-France (2015-01-05). "Le marché du véhicule électrique maintient sa progression en 2014" [The electric vehicle market continues to grow in 2014] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
- 1 2 France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-07). "Immatriculations des voitures électriques : + 62,1% en 2015" [All-electric car registrations: + 62.1% in 2015] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 17,779 all-electric cars were registered in France in 2015.
- 1 2 3 France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-08). "Immatriculations des hybrides rechargeables : La barre des 5.000 est franchie !" [Plug-in hybrid registrations: The 5,000 barrier is achieved!] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 5,006 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2015.
- 1 2 3 France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France (2016-01-12). "Immatriculations des utilitaires électriques : + 9,6% en 2015" [All-electric utility vehicle registrations: + 9.6% in 2015] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-05-14. A total of 4,916 all-electric utility vans were registered in France in 2015.
- ↑ Laurent Meillaud (2012-01-14). "2630 voitures électriques immatriculées en 2011" [2630 electric cars registered in 2011] (in French). MSN France. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
- 1 2 Yoann Nussbaumer (2013-01-16). "+115% pour les ventes de voitures électriques en France pour 2012" [Electric car sales in France increased 115% in 2011] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
- 1 2 3 Jeff Cobb (2014-01-16). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2013-01-15). "Voitures hybrides – Le bilan des immatriculations 2012 en France" [Hybrid Cars – The balance of 2012 registrations in France] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2013-01-15.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2014-01-19). "Hybride rechargeable – Le marché français stagne en 2013" [Rechargeable hybrids – The French market stagnated in 2013] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2014-01-19.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-24). "France December 2013 (Updated)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
- ↑ Philippe Schwoerer (2015-01-09). "Quel marché espérer en 2015 pour le véhicule électrique ?" [What the market expects in 2015 for the electric vehicle] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-02-01. The BMW i3 with range extender is often excluded of the count of all-electric cars because in France it is classified and accounted together with conventional hybrids.
- ↑ AVERE-France (2015-01-08). "Hybride : un marché en recul en 2014, l'hybride essence tient le coup" [Hybrid: a declining market in 2014, the gasoline-electric hybrid holds up] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique – AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-02-02. A total of 1,519 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2014.
- ↑ Philippe Schwoerer (2015-01-16). "Mitsubishi mise et gagne sur l'hybride rechargeable" [Mitsubishi bets and wins with its plug-in hybrid] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-02-02.
- ↑ Automobile Propre. "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d'utilitaires électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2015-02-02. See "Ventes d’utilitaires électriques en 2014" for all-electric utility van registrations in 2014. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014.
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-08-01). "Renault Zoe and BMW i3 Join The 50,000 Sales Club". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-01. As of June 2016, cumulative global sales of the top selling plug-in electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf (about 225,000), Tesla Model S (over 129,000), Votl/Ampera family (over 117,000), Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV (about 107,000), Toyota Prius PHV (over 75,000), BYD Qin (56,191), Renault Zoe (51,193), and BMW i3 (almost 50,000).
- 1 2 Association Nationale pour le Développement de la Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2016-10-07). "Le marché du véhicule électrique dépasse les 20 000 immatriculations pour l'année 2016 !" [The electric vehicle market exceeds 20,000 registrations since the beginning of 2016] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-10-09. During the first nine months of 2016 a total of 16,091 all-electric cars, 3,991 electric vans, and 4,858 plug-in hybrids were registered in France.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (December 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische auto (31-12-2015)" [Figures electric transport – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland – Top 10 registered fully electric vehicle models (31-12-2015)] (PDF) (in Dutch). BOVBAG. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014) – Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014)" [Figures electric transport – Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands, Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (12-31-2014) and Top 6 registered all-electric vehicle models (12-31-2014)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-04-27. Click the url to download the file "2014-cijfers-elektrisch-vervoer-tm-december-2014.pdf.pdf" See under the heading "31-12-2014" for total registrations figures at the end of December 2014. A total of 2,645 Model S sedans were registered in the Netherlands as of December 2014, and it ranks as the top registered all-electric vehicles in the country.
- 1 2 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2013). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer (30-12-2013)" [Figures electric transport (30-12-2013)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2014-08-23.
- ↑ RAI. "Verkoopstatistieken -nieuwverkoop personenautos" [Sales Statistics – New passenger car sales] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2013-02-02. Download pdf file for detailed sales in 2011 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201112") and 2012 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201212").
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-17). "The Netherlands Becomes Sixth Country To Buy 100,000 Plug-in Vehicles". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-18.
- 1 2 Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Concentration of plug-in electrified car registrations per 1,000 people". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-04. As of July 2016, Norway had a concentration of registered plug-in cars per 1,000 people of 21.52, the Netherlands of 5.63, California of 5.83, and the United States national average was 1.52.
- ↑ Mark Rowney; Will Straw (2013-04-15). "Leading the Charge – Can Britain Develop a Global Advantage in Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicles" (PDF). Institute for Public Policy Research. Retrieved 2013-04-16. pp.20
- 1 2 Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) (2013-12-24). "Forse toename elektrische auto's" [Major increase in electric car sales]. NOS (in Dutch). Retrieved 2013-12-26.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2016). "Special: Analyse over 2015" [Special: Analysis over 2015] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2013-12-17). "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV top seller". AID. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-12-04). "Netherlands November 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-04). "Netherlands December 2013". EV Sales. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-12-04). "Netherlands November 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
- ↑ Priest, Ruben (2016-01-11). "De 5 populairste semi-elektrische en elektrische auto's van 2015" [The 5 most popular plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars in 2015] (in Dutch). Groen7.nl. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Loveday, Eric (2016-01-23). "Netherlands Shocks With Nearly 16,000 Plug-In Electric Car Sales In December!". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-01). "Elektrische auto" [Electric car]. Auto & Fiscus (in Dutch). Retrieved 2016-02-08. This page presents the current state of fiscal arrangements for plug-in electric cars in the Netherlands.
- ↑ RAI (2016-09-08). "EU-voertuigregistraties alternatieve brandstoffen" [EU - Registrations of vehicles with alternative fuels] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2016-10-14.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2016-01-07). "December 2015 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2016-01-21. A total of 28,188 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2015, consisting of 9,934 pure electrics and 18,254 plug-in hybrids. A total of 2,633,503 new cars were registered in 2015.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2012-01-06). "December 2011 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2013-01-07). "December 2012 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-01-07). "December 2013 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2014-01-12. A total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013.
- ↑ Lane, Ben (October 2016). "Electric car market statistics". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2016-10-07. As of 30 September 2016, the total UK light-duty electric fleet is about 90,000 plug-in electric vehicles, consisting of about 85,000 plug-in cars and 5,000 plug-in electric commercial vans. This figure includes a significant number of registered plug-in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes.
- 1 2 3 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2016-10-05). "September 2016 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2016-10-07. Registrations during the first nine months of 2016 totaled 29,185 plug-in electric vehicles consisting of 8,107 all-electric cars and 21,078 plug-in hybrids. Of these, a total of 28,035 cars were eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant. Since its launch in 2011, a total of 75,647 cars eligible for the PICG have been registered through September 2016. A total of 2,150,495 new cars were registered between January and September 2016, resulting in a plug-in electric car market share of 1.36% of new car sales.
- ↑ RAC Foundation (June 2016). "Claims made through the Plug-in Van Grant scheme". UK: RAC Foundation. Retrieved 2016-06-18. See graph with PIVG cumulative claims and claims by quarter.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (April 2011). "Motor Industry Facts 2011" (PDF). SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14. Download the pdf report. Data available by year in Table: AFV Registrations, pp.15. Data shows all type of EVs, including quadricycles. A total of 1,096 electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010
- ↑ Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield (2013-08-30). "TLC needed: Can cars like the G-Wiz still have a purpose in life?". The Green Car Website. Retrieved 2013-10-10.
- 1 2 "Cash reward celebrates 15,000th UK LEAF sale" (Press release). Nissan UK. 2016-09-14. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-18). "Nissan electric vehicle sales soar, as industry celebrates fresh green car investment". Business Green. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
- 1 2 Will Nichols (2015-01-08). "Electric car sales quadruple during 2014". Business Green. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 4,051 Leafs were sold in 2014.
- ↑ Ben Lane (2014-08-06). "UK electric fleet passes 13,000 mark". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2014-08-19.
- ↑ Will Nichols (2014-10-07). "UK electric car sales surge in 2014". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-12-04). "November 2014 – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2014-12-08). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales UK At 1% Of Market In November". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
- ↑ Chris Lilly (2015-08-26). "Plug-in Car Grant scheme extended". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- 1 2 Lane, Ben (2016-01-07). "UK plug-in car sales hit record levels". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- ↑ "Record-breaking year for plug-in cars". Fleet News. 2016-01-15. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 Millikin, Mike (2016-10-14). "Sales of Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV top 25K in UK, accounting for ~50% of all PHEVs there since 2010". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2016-10-14.
- ↑ "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the UK's Favourite Plug-In Vehicle". The Auto Channel. 2015-03-09. Retrieved 2015-03-14.
- ↑ Price, Maddy (2016-04-13). "Electric Car Registrations Reach Record High As Plug-In Popularity Continues To Grow". Fleet Point. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
- ↑ Lilly, Chris (2016-04-07). "Record month for EV sales". Next GreenCar UK. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
- ↑ "Highest ever electric car uptake recorded at 2016 half-way point" (Press release). London: Go Ultra Low. 2016-08-02. Retrieved 2016-08-19. The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV was the top selling plug-in car in the UK with 5,738 registered during the first half of 2016. The Nissan LEAF remained the top selling pure-electric car with 2,336 first-half registrations in 2016.
- ↑ Lilly, Chris (2016-10-06). "September sales figures see boost for electric models". Next Green Car. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
- ↑ Moran, Mark (2016-10-20). "Government invests £10m in electric vehicle charging infrastructure". TransportXtra.com. Retrieved 2016-10-20.
- ↑ Autobild (2012-01-12). "2011 Full Year Best-Selling Electric Cars in Germany in 2011". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31. Cumulative number of registered electric cars was 4,541 as of January 1, 2012. All-electric car and van registrations in 2010 totaled 541 units and 2,154 in 2011..
- ↑ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2013-01-31). "Neuzulassungen E-Mobilität 2012-Kaum Zuwachs wegen Twizy" [Registrations E-mobility – Low growth due to Twizy]. Auto Bild (in German). Retrieved 2013-02-14. A total of 2,956 all-electric cars were registered in Germany during 2012.
- 1 2 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen – Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2013" [Monthly registrations – New registrations Barometer in December 2013] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,385 plug-in hybrids and 6,051 all-electric cars were registered during 2013.
- 1 2 3 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2016). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2015" [New Registrations Barometer December 2015] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-21. A total of 23,464 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany during 2015, consisting of 12,363 all-electric cars and 11,101 plug-in hybrids.
- 1 2 3 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (October 2016). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im September 2016" [New Registrations Barometer September 2016] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2016-10-07. A total of 17,074 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany between January and September 2016, consisting of 7,678 all-electric cars and 9,396 plug-in hybrids.
- ↑ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen – Neuzulassungsbarometer im Juni 2014" [Monthly registrations – New registrations Barometer in June 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,575 plug-in hybrids and 4,188 electric cars were registered during the first six months of 2014.
- 1 2 Mark Kane (2015-01-26). "Electric Car Sales In Germany Hit New High In December 2014". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
- ↑ Pontes, Jose (2016-01-25). "Germany December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-10-06.
- ↑ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA) (September 2016). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen im August 2016 nach Segmenten und Modellreihen" [New registrations of passenger cars by segments and models in August 2016] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2016-09-16. A total of 1,237 i3s and 179 i8s were registered in Germany during the first eight months of 2016.
- ↑ Pontes, Jose (2016-09-20). "Germany August 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
- ↑ Agence France-Presse (2016-10-05). "Cheap financing deals push Germans to buy more cars". Yahoo News. Retrieved 2016-10-05.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bil Sweden (2016-01-04). "Nyregistreringar december 2015 def" [New Registrations December 2015 (final)] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2016-04-15. Download the pdf file "Nyregistreringar december 2015 def" (PressRel1512_def.pdf) See table: Nyregistrerade miljöpersonbilar december 2015. A total of 5,625 plug-in hybrids, 2,962 all-electric cars and 321 all-electric vans were registered in 2015, for a total of 8,908 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles. Passenger car registrations totaled 345,108 units in 2015. Registration figures for 2014 were revised.
- 1 2 3 Bil Sweden (2015-10-02). "Urstark bilmarknad under 2014" [Exceptionally strong car market in 2014] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-02-22. A total of 4,656 super clean cars and 282 all-electric vans were registered in Sweden in 2014. Super clean cars are those with carbon dioxide emissions of up to 50 g/km (two Porsche plug-in models, the Panamera S E-Hybrid and the 918 Spyder are not accounted as super clean cars, instead they are accounted with conventional hybrids). In 2011 there were 181 plug-in electric vehicles registered, 928 in 2012, 1,546 in 2013 and 4,656 super clean cars were registered during 2014. Since the introduction of the super clean car rebate in January 2012 until December 2014, a total of 7,130 super clean cars have been registered.
- 1 2 Bil Sweden (2014-01-02). "Nyregistreringar december 2013 prel" [New registrations in December 2013 prel] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2014-01-03. Download file "Nyregistreringar december 2013 prel.pdf" see table "NYREGISTRERADE SUPERMILJÖBILAR DECEMBER 2013" with summary of PEV sales by model for 2013 and 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Bil Sweden (2016-10-03). "Nyregistreringar september 2016" [New Registrations September 2016] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2016-10-16. Download the pdf file "Nyregistreringar september 2016" (PressRel1609.pdf) See table: Nyregistrerade miljöpersonbilar per typ september 2016. A total of 9,467 units were registered during the first three quarters of 2016, consisting of 7,228 plug-in hybrids, 2,041 all-electric cars, and 198 all-electric vans. Super clean car registrations totaled 9,106 units.
- ↑ Desk, Lifestyle (2011-09-08). "Sweden Follows Suit with Electric Car Subsidy". The Global Herald. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
- ↑ "Fossil-free transport and travel: The Government's work to reduce the impact of transport on the climate". Government Offices of Sweden. 2016-05-25. Retrieved 2016-10-21.
- ↑ Bil Sweden (2014-08-01). "Fjärde högsta julisiffran någonsin för nya bilar" [Fourth highest July sales figure ever for new cars] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2014-09-01. A total of 5,209 super clean cars have been registered in Sweden since 2011. Super clean cars are those with carbon dioxide emissions of up to 50 g/km (two Porsche plug-in models, the Panamera S E-Hybrid and the 918 Spyder are not accounted as super clean cars, instead they are accounted with conventional hybrids). In 2011 there were 181 super clean vehicles registered, 928 in 2012, 1,546 in 2013 and 2,554 were registered during the first seven months of 2014.
- ↑ Lasse Swärd (2014-08-01). "Supermiljöbilspremien är slut" [Super car rebate ends]. Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish). Retrieved 2014-09-01.
- ↑ "Fjärde högsta julisiffran någonsin för nya bilar" [Fourth highest July sales figure ever for new cars] (in Swedish). Joomla. August 2014. Retrieved 2014-09-01.
- ↑ Klippenstein, Matthew (2016-06-14). "Plug-in Electric Car Sales in Canada, May 2016: Canada crosses 20,000 cars with plugs". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-06-14.
- 1 2 France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2016-10-28). "L'Assemblée nationale du Québec adopte la loi véhicules zéro émission" [Quebec's National Assembly enacted a zero emissions vehicle law] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2016-09-19.
- ↑ Lampert, Allison (2016-10-26). "Quebec approves new law to boost sales of zero emission vehicles". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-10-28.
- 1 2 Stevens, Matthew (2016-02-09). "Electric Vehicle Sales in Canada: 2015 Final Numbers". Fleetcarma.com. Retrieved 2016-02-28. See table "Total Canadian EV fleet" and graph "EVs in Canada by Model"
- ↑ Klippenstein, Matthew (2015-02-06). "Plug-in electric car sales in Canada, January 2015". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-02-07. Estimated sales for Ford Energi models. Tesla Model S, Smart ED and the other figures with yellow background from IHS data.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-12-08). "Nissan Sells 200,000th Leaf Just Before Its Fifth Anniversary". HybriCars.com. Retrieved 2015-12-13. By early December 2015, the all-electric Nissan Leaf is all-time best-selling plug-in car in the world with over 200,000 units sold. See editorial note.
- ↑ "Power to the people: Nissan and ENEL launch first smart grid trials" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Europe. 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-12-11. More than 200,000 Nissan Leafs have been sold worldwide.
- ↑ OFV (January 2014). "Bilsalget i desember og hele 2013" [Car sales in December and during 2013] (in Norwegian). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ↑ Jake Spring (2015-10-23). "CORRECTED-(OFFICIAL)-UPDATE 2-Tesla CEO says negotiating with China on local production". Reuters. Retrieved 2015-10-24. Tesla sold sold 3,025 Model S cars in China from January to September 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2015-03-07). "Tesla cutting 30% of staff in China". Want China Times. Retrieved 2015-03-09. Tesla imported 4,800 Model S cars in 2014, but only 2,499 of those vehicles were registered for road use in China.
- ↑ "Nissan's "No Charge to Charge" program expands to 10 new Markets" (Press release). Nashville: Nissan USA. 2016-08-04. Retrieved 2016-08-13. With more than 228,000 global sales, the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling electric car in history.
- 1 2 Henry Lee; Sabrina Howell; Adam Heal (June 2014). "Leapfrogging or Stalling Out? Electric Vehicles in China". Belfer Center, Harvard Kennedy School. Retrieved 2016-08-16. Download EVS in China (full report). See Table 2: Chinas's EV Sales by Brand, 2011–2013, pp. 19. BAIC E150 EVs sales totaled 644 units in 2012 and 1,466 in 2013. JAC J3 EV sales totaled 2,485 units in 2012 and 1,309 in 2013
- 1 2 Jose, Pontes (2016-07-17). "China June 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-15. A total of 9,977 BAIC E-series, and 7,862 JAC iEVs were sold in China during the first half of 2016.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cobb, Jeff (2016-07-05). "June 2016 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
- 1 2 3 Pontes, Jose (2016-01-30). "Europe December 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 1,230 Ford C-Max Energi, 11,214 VW e-Golf, and 2,653 Volvo XC90 T8s were sold in Europe in 2015.
- ↑ Pontes, Jose (2015-01-31). "Europe December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-07. European VW e-Golf sales totaled 3,328 units in 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 Edelstein, Stephen (2016-08-16). "European electric and plug-in hybrid sales for Jan–June 2016". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-08-16. A total of 5,692 VW Golf GTEs, 5,035 Volvo XC90s, 3,912 VW e-Golfs, and 3,341 Audi A3-eTrons were sold in Europe during the first half of 2016.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2013-01-14). "China Full Year 2012: Ford Focus triumphs". Best Selling Car Blog. Retrieved 2013-01-22.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2014-01-14). "China December 2013: Focus on the all-new models". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-01-16.
- ↑ Staff (July 2016). "Chinese car sales data: BYD E6". Left-lane.com. Retrieved 2016-08-14. A total of 9,226 BYD e6s were sold in China during the first half of 2016.
- ↑ China Auto Web (2012-09-30). "JAC Delivers 500 J3 EVs ("ievs")". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2013-04-19. A total of 1,585 of the first and second generation JAC J3 models were sold during 2010 and 2011.
- ↑ China Auto Web (2013-03-25). "Chinese EV Sales Ranking for 2012". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2013-04-19. A total of 2,485 JAC J3 EVs were sold in 2012.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-11-04). "GM Sells Its 100,000th Volt in October". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-11-04.About 102,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family have been sold worldwide by the end of October 2015.
- ↑ Cain, Timothy (2016-11-01). "Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures". Good Car Bad Car. Retrieved 2016-11-02.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2016). "Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31 december 2015) – Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31 december 2015)" (in Dutch). Nnederlandel Ektrisch. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ "Global Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sales Pass the 100,000 Mark" (Press release). UK: Mitsubishi Motors UK. 2016-05-19. Retrieved 2016-05-22. As of March 2016, a total of 65,529 units have been sold in Europe (21,052 in the UK and 44,477 in the rest of Europe), 33,730 in Japan, 2,015 in Australia and 259 in the rest of the world, for a total of 101,533 units sold worldwide.
- ↑ "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen" [Figures electric transport – Top 5 registered plug-in hybrid electric vehicle models] (PDF) (in Dutch). Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland. April 2016. Retrieved 2016-05-09. With a total of 24,572 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs registered by the end of March 2016, the plug-in hybrid is the all-time top registered plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands.
- ↑ "Two years since launch and the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV has created a whole new market sector". Automotive World. 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
- ↑ Tiphaine Leurent (2015-12-11). "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV : en 2 ans, plus de 50 000 ventes en Europe" [Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV: more than 50,000 sales in Europe in 2 years] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-12-11.
- 1 2 "Worldwide Sales of Toyota Hybrids Surpass 9 Million Units" (Press release). Toyota City, Japan: Toyota. 2016-05-20. Retrieved 2016-05-22.
- ↑ Undercoffler, David (2016-02-01). "Toyota's fuel-thrifty Prius family may shrink as automaker ponders strategy". Automotive News. Retrieved 2016-03-25. Prius PHV sales totaled 42,293 units through December 2015.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (December 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (30-11-2015)" [Figures electric transport – Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (11-30-2015)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2016-03-26.
- ↑ Brad Berman (2015-05-01). "Toyota Halts Production of Prius Plug-in Hybrid Until Late 2016". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ↑ Voelcker, John (2016-12-01). "Plug-in electric car sales for Nov: Volt soars, Prius Prime arrives (UPDATE)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
- ↑ Jim Motavalli (2014-06-30). "Confirmed: Volvo To Offer Plug-In Hybrid Option on All Models". PluginCars.com. Retrieved 2014-09-03. Volvo sold 7,739 V60 plug-in hybrids in 2013.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-07-26). "Europe June 2016". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-08-16. Volvo V60 Plug-in sales in Europe totaled 1,614 units during the first half of 2016.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-01-12). "China December 2015 (3rd Update)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 10,711 SAIC Roewe 550 PHEVs were sold in China in 2015.
- ↑ Staff (July 2016). "Chinese car sales data: Roewe 550 Hybrid". Left-lane.com. Retrieved 2016-08-17. A total of 8,711 Roewe 550 PHEVs were sold in China during the first half of 2016.
- ↑ Voelckr, John (2016-01-19). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales For 2015 Fall Slightly From 2014". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-02-13. A total of 49 Audi A3 e-trons were sold in the U.S. in 2015.
- ↑ "BMW Group sells more than 2 million vehicles in 2014" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group PressClub Global. 2015-01-09. Retrieved 2015-02-07. A total of 16,052 i3s and 1,741 i8s were sold in 2014.
- ↑ "BMW Group achieves fifth consecutive record sales year" (Press release). Detroit/Munich: BMW Group. 2016-01-11. Retrieved 2016-02-06. A total of 29,513 BMW i brand units were delivered to customers worldwide in 2015, up 65.9% from 2014, consisting of 24,057 BMW i3s and 5,456 BMW i8s.
- ↑ Staff (July 2016). "European car sales data: BMW i8". Left-lane.com. Retrieved 2016-08-18. A total of 875 i8s were sold in Europe during the first half of 2016.
- ↑ Staff (2016-02-11). "Opel bringt 2017 neues Elektroauto" [Opel brings new electric car in 2017]. Autohaus.de (in German). Retrieved 2016-03-31. About 10,000 Opel Amperas were sold in Europe by the end of 2015.
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- Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
- RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
- Shade's of Green – Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink that Footprint, February 2013.
- State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
- The Great Debate – All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014
- UK Plug-in Car Grant website
- Transport Action Plan: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative, United Nations, Climate Summit 2014, September 2014
- U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
- U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
- US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
- Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University
Books
- David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
- Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6.
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