Grahame Clark

Sir Grahame Clark
Born	28 July 1907 Bromley, England.
Died	12 September 1995 (aged 88) Cambridge, England
Nationality	British
Fields	Archaeology
Known for	Mesolithic

Sir John Grahame Douglas Clark, KBE,^[1] FBA (28 July 1907 – 12 September 1995), who often published as J. G. D. Clark, was a British archaeologist most notable for his work on the Mesolithic and his theories on palaeoeconomy. He was Disney Professor of Archaeology at the University of Cambridge from 1952 to 1974 and Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge from 1973 to 1980.

Born in Kent to an upper middle-class family, Clark was educated at Marlborough College and developed an early interest in prehistoric flint tools. He gained his undergraduate and then doctoral degree from the University of Cambridge's Peterhouse College. For the latter, he produced a thesis and published monograph focusing on Mesolithic Britain. In 1932 he co-founded the Fenland Research Committee, through which he excavated several prehistoric sites in the East Anglian Fens. He was also a senior member of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia, and was instrumental in transforming it into The Prehistoric Society in 1935.

During the Second World War, Clark was drafted into the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve. He remained in Britain, working on aerial reconnaissance. After the war he returned to his work at Cambridge University. In 1952 he was appointed to the Disney Chair.

Although he was not popular among the British archaeological community, Clark is regarded as one of the most important prehistorians of his generation. He was the subject of a biography by Brian Fagan.

Biography

Early life: 1907–27

John Grahame Douglas Clark was born on 28 July 1907.^[2] He was the eldest son of Maude Ethel Grahame Clark (née Shaw) and Charles Douglas Clark, the latter being a stockbroker and a reserve officer in the British Army.^[2] The family were upper middle-class and moderately prosperous.^[3] They lived in the village of Shortlands, near to Bromley in West Kent.^[2] At the outbreak of the First World War, Charles Clark joined the West Kent Regiment and was sent to fight overseas. He survived the war, but during his return to Britain in 1919 succumbed to the influenza pandemic and died mid-journey.^[2] Grahame Clark grew up without a father, instead being raised by his mother and an uncle for whom he had great affection.^[2] According to the available evidence, Clark's childhood was a happy one.^[3] His family moved to Seaford, a coastal town on the edge of the Sussex Downs, with the young Clark developing a fascination with the prehistoric flint tools that he collected on the Downs.^[4]

In 1921 Clark began an education at Marlborough College in Wiltshire, where he joined the school's Natural History Society.^[5] Aside from his interest in prehistoric tools—which earned him the school nickname "Stones and Bones"—he was also fascinated by the butterflies and moths that could be found in Wiltshire.^[6] During his time at the college he visited the archaeological excavation of Windmill Hill run by Alexander Keiller,^[7] and became an early subscriber to the archaeological journal Antiquity.^[8] His interest in archaeology was encouraged by Antiquity's editor, O. G. S. Crawford,^[8] and he published articles on prehistoric tools in the Natural History Society's Reports.^[6] Having familiarised himself with much of the literature on prehistory, including V. Gordon Childe's influential 1925 book The Dawn of European Civilisation,^[9] in his final year at Marlborough Clark gave a talk on the subject of "Progress in Prehistoric Times".^[7] By the time that he left the school he was committed to the idea of becoming a professional archaeologist.^[7] In this period most prehistoric archaeologists were non-professional hobbyists, and of the few archaeological jobs available most were in museums.^[7]

University education: 1927–34

Clark gained his undergraduate and doctoral degrees from Peterhouse, Cambridge

In 1920s Britain there were few universities that taught courses in prehistory or archaeology.^[10] One was the University of Oxford, although Clark was unsuccessful in attaining a scholarship to attend St John's College, Oxford.^[11] Turning to the University of Cambridge, he applied to join Peterhouse College and while they too turned him down for a scholarship, they admitted him as a "pensioner", or a student who pays for their own tuition.^[6] He began his degree in 1927,^[12] and during his first two years was enrolled on the history tripos.^[6] He attended lectures by economic historians like Michael Postan, which would influence his later archaeological approach to the economies of prehistoric societies.^[13] During these years he had continued his research into archaeology on an independent basis, producing articles on prehistoric stone tools that were published in the journals Sussex Archaeological Collections and the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia.^[11]

In 1928 Clark began his studies in archaeology, which was then taught alongside physical anthropology and social anthropology within the university's anthropology department.^[14] The department was run by the Disney Professor Ellis Minns—whose ideas influenced Clark—while the archaeology curriculum was largely organised by Miles Burkitt, an unpaid lecturer of private means.^[15] Providing himself with a broad-based grounding in archaeology, Clark sat in on lectures given by archaeologists like Gertrude Caton Thompson, Dorothy Garrod, Leonard Woolley, and Childe.^[16] Although the Cambridge syllabus did not provide opportunities for excavation, Clark assisted the non-professional archaeologist Eliot Curwen during his excavations of the Whitehawk Neolithic causewayed camp near Brighton and then The Trundle, an Iron Age hillfort and Neolithic causewayed enclosure near Chichester.^[17] It was at the latter that he befriended two fellow excavators, Stuart Piggott and Charles Philips, who became lifelong friends.^[18] He also visited a number of Mortimer Wheeler's excavations, although never worked on them.^[19] Clark graduated in 1930 with a first-class honours degree.^[20]

Clark then registered as a doctoral student, being awarded a Hugo de Balsham studentship at Peterhouse from 1930 to 1932,^[21] and then a Bye Fellowship from 1932 to 1935.^[22] At Burkitt's suggestion, he devoted his thesis largely to the Mesolithic—or 'Middle Stone Age'—period of British prehistory. At the time little was known about Mesolithic Britain as few scholars had paid attention to it, and most of the archaeological evidence for it consisted of scattered flint tools.^[23] Burkitt served as his supervisor, although largely left Clark to his own devices.^[24] Clark initially familiarised himself with the evidence for Mesolithic society in continental Europe by travelling to Denmark and Sweden in 1929, where he had a chance meeting with Sophus Müller.^[24] On his return to Britain he began a systematic examination of Mesolithic stone tool collections that were held in both museums and private collections across the country, on the basis of which he created a database.^[25]

Clark learned to excavate while assisting the project at the Trundle, an Iron Age hillfort in Sussex

On the basis of this research he wrote The Mesolithic Age in Britain, which was published to critical acclaim by Cambridge University Press in 1932.^[26] The book took a conservative approach to the subject by being heavily artefact-focused, although reflected Clark's growing interest in ecology and the role of Mesolithic society in adapting to climate change by discussing the technique of pollen analysis—which had recently been developed in Scandinavia—as a means of understanding ancient changes in the vegetation.^[27] Influenced by Childe, the book was rooted in the theoretical perspective of culture-historical archaeology, presenting different styles of Mesolithic tool as representations of different 'cultures', which in turn represented different peoples.^[28] The Mesolithic Age in Britain formed the core of Clark's completed thesis, which was titled "The Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Early Metal Age Industries in Britain" and submitted in January 1934.^[29] After passing his oral exam, which was conducted by Thomas Kendrick at the British Museum in London, Clark was awarded his PhD in 1934.^[30]

While conducting his research, he published a number of research articles in scholarly journals such as Antiquity.^[31] In 1932, he co-founded the Fenland Research Committee with the botanists Harry and Margaret Godwin; it represented a loose association of specialists in different academic fields who all had an interest in the East Anglian Fenlands.^[32] Clark served as the group's honorary secretary,^[32] and under him all of the Committee's research projects would be promptly written up and published.^[33] The group excavated at Plantation Farm near Shippea Hill, helping to establish a basic stratigraphic chronology of the Fenland's development.^[34] In 1934 they then carried out a second excavation at Peacock's Farm, which was very important for demonstrating the advantages of interdisciplinary research and for placing British prehistory within an environmental framework.^[35]

In February 1932 he was elected to the council of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia,^[36] and in May 1933 became acting editor of the society's Proceedings at Childe's recommendation.^[36] In February 1934 he was made a permanent council member and honorary editor of the Proceedings.^[36] During his doctoral studies, he entered a relationship with an archaeology student at Girton College, Cambridge, Gwladys Maud "Mollie" White.^[37] In June 1933 the couple assisted Philips' excavation of the long barrow atop Giant's Hill near Skendleby, Lincolnshire.^[38] By 1934, both Clark and contemporaries like Piggott had become increasingly influential within the British archaeological community.^[38] Previously, in February 1933, Burkitt had ensured that Clark was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.^[18] Clark himself was however unpopular in many archaeological circles, a result of what his later biographer Brian Fagan described as Clark's tendency to be "extremely critical, even cruel" toward others.^[38]

Early career: 1935–39

In July 1935, Cambridge University employed Clark to teach a course on "geochronology and climatic history".^[39] In 1936 he was then employed as a full-time lecturer at the university's Department of Anthropology and Archaeology.^[39] In this position he trained an influential coterie of undergraduates in archaeology between 1935 and 1939, among them Charles McBurney, Bernard Fagg, and J. Desmond Clark.^[40] In 1935, he helped to set up the Cambridge University Archaeology Field Unit and was appointed its honorary vice president.^[41] He arranged for undergraduate members of the Field Unit to assist him in his March 1935 excavations at Mildenhall Fen, where they discovered a wealth of Bronze Age material.^[42] Over the course of 1937 and 1938 he co-ran an excavation of the Mesolithic site at Farnham with the non-professional W. F. Rankine. The excavation only revealed some stone tools, producing no ecological data and very little evidence of any structures. Although Rankine argued that they should produce a lengthy report, Clark only wrote up the results for a 1939 article in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society.^[43]

In February 1935 Clark had suggested that the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia rename itself as the Prehistoric Society, thus stretching its remit far beyond East Anglia. A vote on the issue produced an overwhelming majority in support of the change.^[44] Membership of the group then grew rapidly; in 1935 it had 353 members, and this had increased to 668 in 1938.^[45] Under Clark's lead, the new Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society published articles by prominent archaeologists like Childe, Piggott, Philips, and Glyn Daniel, and emphasised interdisciplinary examinations that took into account the work of the natural sciences.^[46] Clark also encouraged archaeologists working on non-British prehistory to submit to the journal,^[39] and met with the prominent French archaeologist Henri Breuil on the latter's visit to Cambridge.^[39]

In 1936, Clark was guided around the Danebirke by German archaeologists

In the summer of 1936, Clark married Mollie in St Peter's Church, Chichester.^[47] They then embarked on a honeymoon in Norway and Sweden, looking at the region's prehistoric rock art, on the subject of which Clark then produced an illustrated article for Antiquity.^[48] Later that year, the couple and Philips embarked on a road trip across northern Europe, visiting archaeological sites like the Danevirke and the Nydam Boat.^[49] In Germany they spent time at the Schleswig Museum and met with Gustav Schwantes, who took them to visit Alfred Rust's excavation of a Mesolithic site at Meiendorf.^[49] Clark and Rust got on well and remained in contact for many years.^[49] Crossing to Denmark, the trio were involved in a car crash near to Randers, with the Clarks requiring hospitalisation for three weeks.^[50]

In 1936, Cambridge University Press published Clark's The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe, in which he demonstrated his growing interest in ecological and environmental themes.^[51] The book established Clark as being at the forefront of Mesolithic archaeology^[52] being hailed as an important and trend-setting tome which would influence generations of Mesolithic archaeologists before eventually becoming outdated due to more detailed research.^[53] In 1939 Methuen and Co published Clark's Archaeology and Society.^[54] This was a textbook that outlined how to understand past societies through archaeology,^[55] and expressed the view that archaeology could be a force for peace in the world by promoting notions of human unity.^[56] In the book he condemned Soviet archaeology, believing that the Soviet government had forced archaeologists to support their pre-conceived Marxist ideas about societal and economic development.^[57] He also condemned the use of archaeology in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, claiming that they used archaeology to promote a "diseased nationalism".^[56] Published to good reviews,^[58] the book was read widely and revised editions were published in 1947 and 1952.^[55]

Second World War: 1939–45

Clark's archaeological career was out on hold during the Second World War.^[59] While awaiting enlistment into the British armed forces, Clark took lessons in Russian with Ellis Minns in order to enable him to read Soviet archaeological publications.^[60] He was then drafted into the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve as a pilot officer, being posted to the central interpretative unit at RAF Medmenham.^[60] There, he served in the aerial photograph interpretation unit, where he worked alongside fellow archaeologists like Daniel, Garrod, Piggott, Philips, and McBurney.^[60] This grouping allowed for some continuity in the British archaeological community despite the widespread cessation of active research.^[61] During this period he lived with his wife and two children at a small, isolated house in Little Marlow, Buckinghamshire.^[61] In 1944 he was transferred to the Air Historical Branch based in Westminster.^[61] He and his family relocated back to their Cambridge house in Barton Road.^[61] Clark used his daily commute from Cambridge into central London to edit the Proceedings.^[61] Although all meetings of the Prehistoric Society were cancelled for the duration of the war, Clark was able to keep the Proceedings going despite paper rationing.^[62]

Clark read omnivorously and produced a steady stream of academic articles in this period.^[63] From 1942 to 1948 he published articles on such diverse subjects as water, bees, sheep, fishing, and whale hunting in prehistory.^[63] These reflected his interest in using recorded folk culture and historical evidence to bring a fresh stance to the archaeological evidence.^[64] In August 1943, Clark gave the opening address at the 'Future of Archaeology' conference at London's Institute of Archaeology.^[65] This address was then published in Antiquity.^[66] In it, Clark claimed that education in British schools was a "parody of knowledge" and that rather than emphasising competitiveness and preparing pupils for future careers, education should focus on "human well-being" and helping students gain an understanding of both themselves and of humanity.^[66] He claimed that the teaching of prehistory—a subject he thought to be the inheritance of all humanity—would provide a good basis for a pupil's education.^[67] At the conference, he had been among those arguing that post-war the field of archaeology should not be allowed to come under increasing state control, fearing that doing so might result in British archaeology taking on increasingly nationalistic characteristics, as it had in Nazi Germany.^[68]

Post-war period: 1946–

Clark was demobilised in 1946.^[69] He returned to Cambridge University where he was appointed full lecturer in archaeology, with the department now under the leadership of Garrod.^[69] During the summer break of 1947, Clark led a team of undergraduates in the excavation of Bullock's Haste along the Car Dyke near Cottenham, revealing evidence of early Romano-British activity.^[70] In 1947 and in 1948 he was awarded a Leverhulme Fellowship which allowed him to travel across much of Northern and Central Europe.^[71] He looked at the technologies and techniques of rural and fishing communities in much of Scandinavia, displaying his interest in the relationship between folk culture and ecology.^[72] He expanded the length of the Proceedings in the years following the war, now aided by Piggott and Kenneth Oakley as his editorial assistants.^[73]

In 1946, Childe resigned as the Abercromby Professor of Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh. Clark applied to succeed him, although the positon was instead given to Piggott.^[74] Piggott then invited Clark to give the Munro Lectures at Edinburgh in 1949.^[75] In 1950, he was elected to a fellowship at Peterhouse, a position that he held for the next 45 years.^[76] At the college he befriended his colleague Michael Postan, an economic historian whose research into Medieval farming techniques inspired Clark to reassess Neolithic farming.^[76] In 1951 he contributed a chapter on the use of folklore in interpreting prehistory for a festschrift devoted to Childe.^[76] Fagan later described this chapter as one of Clark's most important papers.^[77] Clark also wrote a book, Prehistoric Europe: the Economic Basis, which reflected his interest in ecology and the impact that it had on the economics of human society.^[75] The book received mixed reviews,^[78] although would be described by Fagan as "arguably the most influential of all Clark's books".^[75] It sold widely and was translated into several languages.^[79]

In 1952, Garrod retired and Clark replaced her as the Disney Chair.^[80]

Later life

He spent his entire working career at Peterhouse save for his work in air photo interpretation for the RAF during the Second World War. For this period, he served as a Squadron Leader.

He became a fellow of the British Academy in 1950, Disney Professor of Archaeology two years later, head of the archaeology and anthropology department in 1956 and Master of Peterhouse from 1973 until 1980.^[81] The college has a rowing coxed four named in his honour.

During his career he most famously studied the Mesolithic of northern Europe, excavating at Star Carr between 1949 and 1951, work which remains highly significant in our understanding of the period and igniting recognition of the British Mesolithic which had been previously ignored.^[82] He also wrote general works on world prehistory intended for a wide audience and encouraged archaeologists to more closely examine the economic factors relevant to past societies.

He was also editor of the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society and its President between 1958 and 1962. He was made a CBE in 1971 and knighted in 1992. He was awarded the Viking Fund Medal in 1972^[83] and the Erasmus Prize for Prehistory in 1990.^[84]

Later life

Sir Grahame was knighted for his work in 1992. He was master of Peterhouse College at Cambridge University from 1973 to 1980; Disney Professor of Archaeology at Cambridge from 1952 to 1974, and head of the department of archaeology and anthropology there from 1956 to 1961 and from 1968 to 1971.

In 1990 he received a $120,000 Dutch award, the Erasmus Prize of the Netherlands Foundation, for increasing knowledge of prehistoric Europe through "opening new methods in his field by integrating ecology, anthropology and economics in the classic study of prehistory."

The Times of London said on Thursday that Sir Grahame, an expert on the Mesolithic period, "helped to develop European archaeology away from a preoccupation with stone-tool typology and toward a broader understanding of how early societies exploited their environment."

The Mesolithic period, or Middle Stone Age, began when the last glacial period ended more than 10,000 years ago. In Europe, Mesolithic cultures lived on almost until 3,000 B.C.

Sir Grahame's books ranged from "The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe" (1936) to "Aspects of Prehistory" (California, 1970), "Symbols of Excellence: Precious Materials as Expressions of Status" (Cambridge, 1986), "Economic Prehistory" (Cambridge, 1989) and "Space, Time and Man: A Prehistorian's View" (1992).

He died, aged 88, on 12 September 1995 at his home in Cambridge.

His wife, Lady Molly Clark, the former Gwladys Maude White, died on 3 July 2013. The couple were survived by their son, Philip, of Trumpington, and six grandchildren.

Archaeological approach

Clark's approach to prehistory was rooted in the notion that the human race was biologically united and that human diversity arose from responses to changing environments.^[85] Influenced by German and Scandinavian archaeological models, Clark drew on folklore and ethnography to gain a better understanding of prehistoric modes of subsistence.^[60] He nevertheless did not use such analogies uncritically, believing that they were mostly of use when there was a continuous historical link between older and more recent communities and where they both lived in very similar environmental conditions.^[86]

Personal life

[Clarke] was fundamentally a simple and direct thinker, with a brilliant gift for getting at the nub of a problem and a breadth of vision that could be astounding. Grahame Clarke was conservative, sometimes magisterial, even rude, but his archaeology was sometimes tinged with genius.

— Brian Fagan^[87]

Physically, Clark was tall and thin.^[88] Fagan described him as "an imposing, remote man who hid his feelings",^[88] and who presented "an austere, sometimes forbidding exterior".^[89] Clark was awkward around his students,^[89] who were often a little afraid of him.^[90] His lecture style was dry, and not entertaining.^[87] He had few friendships among the archaeological community, but many acquaintances.^[89] According to Fagan, he was "not necessarily universally beloved".^[3] Fellow archaeologist Christopher Hawkes became his "long-term intellectual adversary".^[78] According to Fagan, Clark had a "competitive personality" and "craved recognition and an international reputation".^[54]

Clark spent much of his leisure time visiting art galleries, and in later life he began collecting art.^[91]

According to Coles, Mollie "became an indispensable part of Clark's academic life as well as a source of immense happiness to him".^[92] After their marriage, the Clarks purchased a house in Barton Road, Cambridge.^[93] They lived away from this house during the first part of the Second World War, although returned in 1944.^[61]

Reception and legacy

In November 1997, a Grahame Clark Memorial Conference was held at the British Academy in London.^[94] It was at the conference that John Coles invited Fagan to write Clark's biography.^[94]

Clark was a pioneer in ecological archaeology.^[3] He was also the first archaeologist to write a global prehistory of humankind.^[3] Although considered competent at excavation, he never earned fame as an excavator.^[95] Fagan stated that Clark's "intellectual influence on archaeology was enormous", leaving a "legacy to prehistory [that] will endure for generations".^[89] According to Fagan, he was "one of the most important prehistorians of the twentieth century".^[87]

Clark's work was however little known in the United States, where it was eclipsed in the 1960s by the growth of processual archaeology.^[87]

References

Footnotes

1. Grahame Clark and His Legacy
2. Coles 1997, p. 357; Fagan 2001, p. 2.
3. Fagan 2001, p. 2.
4. Coles 1997, pp. 357–358; Fagan 2001, pp. 2–3.
5. Coles 1997, pp. 357, 358; Fagan 2001, p. 3.
6. Coles 1997, p. 358; Fagan 2001.
7. Fagan 2001, p. 3.
8. Fagan 2001, pp. 9–10.
9. Fagan 2001, p. 11.
10. Fagan 2001, p. 13.
11. Fagan 2001, p. 16.
12. Fagan 2001, p. 14.
13. Fagan 2001, pp. 16–17.
14. Fagan 2001, p. 17.
15. Fagan 2001, p. 15.
16. Coles 1997, p. 359; Fagan 2001, pp. 18–19.
17. Coles 1997, p. 358; Fagan 2001, pp. 20–21.
18. Coles 1997, p. 360; Fagan 2001.
19. Fagan 2001, p. 10.
20. Coles 1997, p. 359; Fagan 2001, p. 19.
21. Coles 1997, pp. 359–360; Fagan 2001.
22. Fagan 2001, pp. 64–65.
23. Fagan 2001, pp. 25–28.
24. Fagan 2001, p. 28.
25. Fagan 2001, p. 30.
26. Fagan 2001, pp. 30, 43.
27. Fagan 2001, pp. 32, 43.
28. Fagan 2001, p. 33.
29. Fagan 2001, pp. 30, 46.
30. Fagan 2001, p. 49.
31. Fagan 2001, p. 48.
32. Fagan 2001, p. 52.
33. Fagan 2001, p. 59.
34. Fagan 2001, pp. 53–54.
35. Fagan 2001, pp. 54–55, 58.
36. Fagan 2001, p. 61.
37. Coles 1997, p. 360; Fagan 2001, p. 45.
38. Fagan 2001, p. 45.
39. Fagan 2001, p. 65.
40. Fagn 2001, p. 66.
41. Fagan 2001, pp. 66–67.
42. Fagan 2001, p. 58.
43. Fagan 2001, p. 95.
44. Fagan 2001, p. 62.
45. Fagan 2001, p. 63.
46. Fagan 2001, pp. 62, 63–64.
47. Coles 1997, p. 361; Fagan 2001.
48. Coles 1997, p. 361; Fagan 2001, p. 91.
49. Fagan 2001, p. 91.
50. Fagan 2006, p. 94.
51. Fagan 2001, p. 73.
52. Fagan 2001, p. 87.
53. Fagan 2001, p. 89.
54. Fagan 2001, p. 96.
55. Fagan 2001, p. 97.
56. Fagan 2001, p. 107.
57. Fagan 2001, pp. 107–108.
58. Fagan 2001, p. 109.
59. Fagan 2001, p. 110.
60. Fagan 2001, p. 111.
61. Fagan 2001, p. 112.
62. Fagan 2001, pp. 112–113.
63. Fagan 2001, p. 120.
64. Fagan 2001, p. 133.
65. Fagan 2001, pp. 113–114.
66. Fagan 2001, p. 116.
67. Fagan 2001, p. 117.
68. Fagan 2001, p. 115.
69. Fagan 2001, p. 125.
70. Fagan 2001, p. 126.
71. Fagan 2001, p. 128.
72. Fagan 2001, pp. 128–129.
73. Fagan 2001, p. 127.
74. Fagan 2001, pp. 138–139.
75. Fagan 2001, p. 139.
76. Fagan 2001, p. 135.
77. Fagan 2001, p. 138.
78. Fagan 2001, p. 141.
79. Fagan 2001, p. 142.
80. Fagan 2001, p. 143.
81. "Sir Grahame Clark - Archeologist, 88, Studied Stone Age". The New York Times. September 18, 1995. Retrieved October 20, 2015.
82. http://www.theposthole.org/read/article/85
83. "RESEARCH GROUP IN ARCHEOMETRY FORMED AT UTAH". Anthropology News. 13 (6): 6–6. 1972. doi:10.1111/an.1972.13.6.6.3. ISSN 1541-6151.
84. Page
85. Fagan 2001, p. 119.
86. Fagan 2001, p. 136.
87. Fagan 2001, p. xiv.
88. Fagan 2001, p. 1.
89. Fagan 2001, p. xii.
90. Fagan 2001, pp. xiii–xiv.
91. Fagan 2001, p. 113.
92. Coles 1997, p. 361.
93. Fagan 2001, p. 94.
94. Fagan 2001, pp. xi–xii.
95. Fagan 2001, p. 23.

Bibliography

Coles, J. (1997). "John Grahame Douglas Clark, 1907–1995" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 94: 357–387.

Fagan, Brian (2001). Grahame Clark: An Intellectual Biography of an Archaeologist. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3602-3.

Smith, Pamela Jane (1996). "Clark and Prehistory at Cambridge". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 6 (1): 9–15.

Smith, Pamela Jane (1997–98). ""A Passionate Connoisseur of Flints": An Intellectual Biography of the Young Grahame Clark based on his pre-war Publications". Archaeologia Polona. 35-36: 385–408.

Smith, Pamela Jane (1997). "Grahame Clark's New Archaeology". Antiquity. 71: 11–30.

Arkadiusz Marciniak and John Coles (eds.): Grahame Clark and his legacy. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2010 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4438-2222-1).