Outline of forgery

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to forgery:

Forgery – process of making, adapting, or imitating objects, statistics, or documents with the intent to deceive.

Types of forgery

Archaeological forgery
Art forgery
Black propaganda — false information and material that purports to be from a source on one side of a conflict, but is actually from the opposing side
Counterfeiting
- Counterfeit money — types of counterfeit coin include the cliché forgery, the fourrée and the slug
- Counterfeit consumer goods
- Counterfeit medication
- Counterfeit watches
- Unapproved aircraft parts
- Watered stock
False documents
Forgery as covert operation
Identity document forgery
- Fake passport
Literary forgery
- Fake memoirs
- Pseudopigraphy — the false attribution of a work, not always as an act of forgery
Musical forgery — music allegedly written by composers of past eras, but actually composed later by someone else
Philatelic forgery — fake stamps produced to defraud stamp collecters
Signature forgery

Legality of forgery

United Kingdom

International

Related offences

Phishing — impersonating a reputable organization via electronic media, which often involves creating a replica of a trustworthy website
Uttering — knowingly passing on a forgery with the intent to defraud

Detection and prevention of forgery

Anti-counterfeiting agencies and organisations

Applied DNA Sciences — an American company that develops DNA-based technology to help identify counterfeit goods
Authentics Foundation - an international non-governmental organization that raises public awareness of counterfeits
Central Bank Counterfeit Deterrence Group — an international group of central banks that investigates emerging threats to the security of banknotes
Counterfeit Coin Bulletin — a now-defunct publication of the American Numismatic Association
International Federation of Spirits Producers — the trade association for the worldwide spirit industry's protection against counterfeit produce
Philatelic Foundation — a major source of authentication of rare and valuable postage stamps
United States Secret Service — the agency responsible for the prevention and investigation of counterfeit U.S. currency
Verified-Accredited Wholesale Distributors — a program that offers an accreditation to wholesale pharmaceutical distribution facilities

Tools and techniques

Counterfeit banknote detection pen — uses an iodine-based ink that reacts with the starch found in counterfeit banknotes
EURion constellation — a pattern of symbols incorporated into banknote designs, which can be detected by imaging software
Geometric lathe — a 19th-century lathe used for making ornamental patterns on the plates used in printing bank notes and stamps
Microprinting - very small text hidden on banknotes or cheques, that is difficult to accurately reproduce
Optical variable device — an iridescent image that cannot be photocopied or scanned
Optically variable ink — ink that appears to change colour depending on the angle it is viewed from
Philatelic expertisation — the process whereby an expert is asked to give an opinion whether a philatelic item is genuine
Questioned document examination — a forensic science discipline that attempts to answer questions about disputed documents
Security printing — the field of the printing industry that deals with the printing of items such as banknotes and identity documents
Security thread — a thin ribbon threaded through a banknote, that appears as a solid line when held up to the light
Taggant — a radio frequency microchip that can be tracked and identified
Watermark — a recognizable image or pattern in paper that appears as various shades of lightness when viewed

Examples of forgery

Archaeological forgery

Acámbaro figures — over 32,000 ceramic figurines which appear to provide evidence for the co-existence of dinosaurs and humans
Archaeoraptor — the supposed "missing link" between birds and terapod dinosaurs; actually constructed by rearranging pieces of genuine fossils
AVM Runestone — a student prank that was believed to be an ancient Norse runestone
Beringer's Lying Stones — fake fossils that were planted as an 18th-century prank
Brandenburg stone — a stone slab bearing markings which appear to be letters of an unknown alphabet
Calaveras Skull — a human skull that was thought to prove the existence of Pliocene-age man in North America
Cardiff Giant — a ten-foot tall "petrified man" carved out of gypsum
Chiemsee Cauldron — a golden cauldron found at the bottom of a lake
Crystal skull — a series of artifacts crafted from quartz, often attributed to Aztec or Mayan civilisations
Drake's Plate of Brass — supposedly a brass plaque planted by Francis Drake upon arrival in America, but really a practical joke that span out of control
Grave Creek Stone — a small sandstone disk inscribed with twenty-five pseudo-alphabetical characters
Holly Oak gorget — a mammoth engraved upon a shell pendent
Ica stones — a collection of andesite stones that depict dinosaurs co-existing with humans
Japanese Paleolithic hoax — a number of paeolithic finds manufactured by amateur archaeologist Shinichi Fujimura to bolster his reputation
Kafkania pebble — a small rounded pebble bearing what could be an early example of Greek syllabic writing
Kinderhook plates — six bell-shaped pieces of brass with strange engravings; Latter-Day Saints founder Joseph Smith allegedly attempted to translate them
Lead Books of Sacromonte — a series of texts inscribed on circular lead leaves, denounced as heretical forgeries by the Vatican in 1682; modern scholars concur with this analysis
Lenape Stone — an engraving that appears to show Native Americans hunting a woolly mammoth
Michigan relics — artifacts that appear to prove that East Europeans lived in Michigan in ancient times; actually a money-making scam
The inscription at Pedra da Gávea — allegedly carved by Phoenicians, who were not thought to have had the naval capacity to travel across the ocean to Brazil
Persian Princess — the mummified body of a "Persian princess"; actually the corpse of a woman who was murdered around 1996
Piltdown Man — the jaw of an orangutan attached to the skull of a human, hailed as the missing link between humans and apes
Solid Muldoon — a "petrified human" made out of mortar, rock dust, clay, plaster, ground bones, blood and meat
Spirit Pond runestones — small stones bearing runic inscriptions, ostensibly of pre-Columbian origin
Tiara of Saitaferne — a tiara exhibited at the Louvre Museum as belonging to a Scythian king, until this statement was disputed by the goldsmith who created it

Art forgery

Amarna Princess — a statue created by Shaun Greenhalgh in the ancient Egyptian style, and sold to Bolton Museum for £439,767
Black Admiral — a Revolutionary War-era painting of a black man in a naval uniform
Bust of Flora — a bust of the Roman goddess Flora, previously believed to be a work by Leonardo da Vinci, now attributed to Richard Cockle Lucas.
Camille Corot forgeries — thousands of imitation Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot paintings
Eadred Reliquary — a silver vessel created by Shaun Greenhalgh, containing a piece of wood which he claimed was a fragment of the True Cross
Etruscan terracotta warriors — three terracotta warriors created by Italian forgers and sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Faun — a sculpture created by Shaun Greenhalgh and sold as a work by Paul Gauguin
Flower portrait — a portrait of William Shakespeare, probably painted in the 19th century
Michelangelo's Cupid — a sleeping Cupid sculpture that was created, artificially aged and sold by Renaissance artist Michelangelo
Risley Park Lanx — the replica of a genuine Roman artifact, "discovered" by the Greenhalgh family and put on display at the British Museum
Rospigliosi Cup — a gold and enamel cup thought to have been crafted by Italian goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini, but now considered a 19th-century forgery
The works of the Spanish Forger — an unidentified 19th-century artist who created over 200 medieval miniatures, which are still highly valued by collectors

Black propaganda

The Franklin Prophecy — an anti-Semitic speech falsely attributed to Benjamin Franklin, arguing against the admittance of Jewish immigrants to the newly formed United States
Morey letter — a letter published during the 1880 US presidential elections, suggesting that James A. Garfield was in favour of Chinese immigration
Our Race Will Rule Undisputed Over The World — a speech given by the non-existent Rabbi Emanuel Rabinovich, outlining Jewish plans for world domination
A Protocol of 1919 — a document supposedly found among the belongings of a Jew killed in battle, outlining Jewish plans for world domination
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion — a lengthy text, originating in Russia and widely publicised by the Nazi party, outlining Jewish plans for world domination
A Radical Program for the Twentieth Century — a text supposedly written by a British Jewish Communist, cited as proof that the civil rights movement in America was a foreign Communist plot
Tanaka Memorial — an alleged Japanese strategic planning document, advising Emperor Hirohito on how to conquer the world

Counterfeiting

2012 Pakistan fake medicine crisis — a batch of counterfeit medicine that killed over 100 heart patients at a hospital in Punjab
Counterfeit United States currency — some notable examples of counterfeit operations
Fake Indian Currency Note — fake currency in circulation in the Indian economy
Operation Bernhard — a Nazi plot to destabilise the British economy by dropping counterfeit notes out of aircraft
Superdollar — a very high-quality counterfeit United States hundred dollar bill
Partnair Flight 394 — a chartered flight that crashed in 1989, killing all 55 people on board; it was caused by counterfeit aircraft parts
Unauthorized Apple Stores in China — twenty-two unauthorised Apple Stores discovered in Kunming

Forged documents

Canuck letter — a letter implying that a Democratic presidential candidate was prejudiced against French-Canadians
Casket letters — letters and sonnets supposedly written by Mary, Queen of Scots, implicating her in the murder of her husband
Donation of Constantine — a decree issued by emperor Constantine I, granting authority over Rome and part of the Roman Empire to Pope Sylvester I and his successors
Dossiers Secrets — documents, planted in the National Library of France, that were used as the basis for a series of BBC documentaries
Habbush letter — a letter linking Saddam Hussein to al-Qaeda and the 9/11 attacks
Killian documents — memos critical of President George W. Bush's service in the National Guard
Larmenius Charter — a Latin manuscript listing twenty-two successive Grand Masters of the Knights Templar
Lindsay pamphlet scandal — pamphlets distributed by the Australian Liberal Party, claiming an alliance between the Labor Party and an Islamic organisation
Mustafa-letter — a letter used by Norway's Liberal Party to prove that the country was in danger of being overrun with Muslims
Niger uranium forgeries — documents implying that Saddam Hussein had attempted to purchase yellowcake uranium powder, allegedly for the purpose of building weapons of mass destruction
Oath of a Freeman — a copy of the loyalty oath drawn up by 17th-century Pilgrims
Privilegium Maius — a medieval manuscript apparently boosting the legitimacy and influence of the House of Habsburg
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals — letters and canons purportedly authored by early popes, including a collection authored by "Benedict Levita".
William Lynch speech — a speech by an 18th-century slave owner, who claims to have discovered the secret of controlling slaves by pitting them against each other
Zeno map — a map of the North Atlantic containing a number of non-existent islands
Zinoviev letter — a directive from Moscow to Britain's Communist Party, calling for intensified communist agitation; the letter contributed to the downfall of Prime Minister MacDonald

Literary forgery

The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ — a religious text supposedly transcribed from the Akashic records
The Archko Volume — a series of supposedly contemporary reports relating to the life and death of Jesus
Autobiography of Howard Hughes — an "autobiography" of reclusive eccentric Howard Hughes, written without his knowledge or consent
Book of Jasher — an alternative account of the Old Testament narrative
Book of Veles — a set of Slavic texts written on wooden planks
Centrum Naturae Concentratum — a 17th-century alchemical text
Christine — a compilation of letters purportedly written by an English girl studying in Germany in 1914, prior to the outbreak of war
Chronicle of Huru — supposedly an official chronicle of the medieval Moldavian court
Chronicon of Pseudo-Dexter — a 15th-century account of the Church's activities in Spain, attributed to Flavius Dexter
De Situ Britanniae — an 18th-century forgery represented as a Roman account of ancient Britain
Epistle to the Alexandrians — an unknown text derided as a forgery in a 7th-century manuscript
Epistle to the Laodiceans — a lost letter of Saint Paul, often "rediscovered" by forgers
Essene Gospel of Peace — a text which claims, among other things, that Jesus was a vegetarian
Gospel of Josephus — a forgery created to raise publicity for a novel
Historias de la Conquista del Mayab — a Mexican manuscript supposedly written by an 18th-century monk
History of the Captivity in Babylon — an ostensibly Old Testament text elaborating on the Book of Jeremiah
Hitler Diaries — a set of volumes purported to be the diaries of Adolf Hitler, serialised in the German magazine Stern and the British Sunday Times
Ireland Shakespeare forgeries — forged correspondence between Shakespeare and his contemporaries, and a "lost play" entitled Vortigern and Rowena
Jack the Ripper Diary — the forged diary of Victorian merchant James Maybrick, apparently revealing him to be Jack the Ripper
Letter of Benan — the letter of an Egyptian physician describing his encounters with Jesus
Letter to an Anti-Zionist Friend — a letter in support of Zionism, attributed to Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles — the "missing" 29th chapter of the Acts of the Apostles
Memoirs Of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy To The Middle East — a document purporting to be the account of an 18th-century secret agent, describing his role in founding the Islamic reform movement of Wahhabism
Manuscripts of Dvůr Králové and of Zelená Hora — fraudulent Slavic manuscripts created in the early 19th century
Minuscule 2427 — a minuscule manuscript of the Gospel of Mark
Mussolini diaries — several forged diaries supposedly written by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini
My Sister and I — an apparently autobiographical work attributed to the philosopher Nietzsche, containing a probably fictional account of his incestuous relationship with his sister
Oahspe: A New Bible — a New Age bible written by an American dentist
Ossianic poems — a cycle of epic poems published by the Scottish poet James Macpherson, attributed to the legendary Ossian
Roxburghe Ballads — over a thousand 17th-century ballads published by John Payne Collier, some of which he had written himself
Salamander Letter — a document which offers an alternative account of Joseph Smith's finding of the Book of Mormon.
Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses — a magical text supposedly written by Moses, providing instructions on how to perform the miracles portrayed in the Bible
The Songs of Bilitis — a collection of erotic poetry allegedly found on the walls of a tomb in Cyprus
Supplements to the Satyricon — several forged versions of the Latin novel Satyricon
Talmud Jmmanuel — a supposedly ancient Aramaic text suggesting an extraterrestrial origin for the Bible
The Zohar — a primary text of medieval Kabbalah, written by a 16th-century Spanish Rabbi but attributed to Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai, an ancient sage of the Second Temple period

Musical forgery

Adélaïde Concerto — a violin concerto attributed to Mozart

Philatelic forgery

Russian philatelic forgeries — some examples of notable Russian stamp forgeries
Stock Exchange Forgery 1872-73 — a fraud perpetrated by telegraph clerks at the London Stock Exchange
Turner Collection of Forgeries — a collection of forged postage stamps on display at the British Library

Forgery controversies

The authenticity of certain documents and artifacts has not yet been determined, and is still the subject of debate.

Augustan History — a collection of biographies of Roman emperors
Bat Creek inscription — an inscription on a stone allegedly found in a Native American burial mound
Isleworth Mona Lisa — a close imitation of da Vinci's Mona Lisa, sometimes attributed in part to da Vinci
James Ossuary — a chalk box used to contain the bones of the dead, bearing the inscription "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus"
Jehoash Inscription — an inscription apparently confirming the Biblical account of the repairs made to the temple in Jerusalem by Jehoash
Jordan Lead Codices — a series of ring-bound books of lead and copper, that are said to pre-date the writings of St. Paul
Kensington Runestone — a slab of greywacke covered in Scandinavian runes, found in North America and supposedly carved in the 14th century
Letter of Lentulus — an epistle allegedly written by a Roman Consul, giving a physical description of Jesus
Majestic 12 documents — supposedly leaked papers relating to the formation, in 1947, of a secret committee of US officials to investigate the Roswell incident
Mar Saba letter — an epistle, attributed to Clement of Alexandria, discussing the Secret Gospel of Mark
The Memoirs of Naim Bey — a collection of telegrams indicating that the Armenian Genocide was formally implemented as Ottoman Empire policy
Newark Holy Stones — a set of artifacts allegedly discovered among a group of ancient Indian burial grounds
Old High German lullaby — a supposedly 10th-century poem containing numerous references to Germanic mythology
Prophecy of the Popes — a series of 112 short cryptic phrases which purport to predict future Roman Catholic Popes
Shroud of Turin — a linen cloth that is said to be the burial shroud of Jesus, and bears the image of a man who appears to have suffered injuries consistent with crucifixion
Sinaia lead plates — a set of lead plates written in an unknown language
Sisson documents — sixty-eight Russian documents which claim that Trotsky and Lenin were German agents attempting to bring about Russia's withdrawal from World War I
Stalin's alleged speech of 19 August 1939 — a speech supposedly given by Joseph Stalin in which he stated that the approaching war would benefit the Soviet Union
Titulus Crucis — a piece of wood, ostensibly a fragment of the True Cross upon which Jesus was crucified
US Army Field Manual 30-31B — a text purporting to be a classified appendix of a US Army Field Manual which describes top-secret counter-insurgency tactics
Vinland map — an allegedly 15th-century map of the world, which could be the earliest map to depict America (or "Vinland")

Some documents and artifacts were previously thought to be forgeries, but have subsequently been determined to be genuine.

Bords de la Seine à Argenteuil — an oil painting by Monet
Glozel artifacts — over three thousand artifacts dating back to the Neolithic era, discovered in a small French hamlet
Lady of Elche — a stone bust believed to have been carved by the Iberians
Praeneste fibula — a golden brooch bearing an inscription in Old Latin

Notable forgers

Archaeological forgers

Charles Dawson (1864–1916) — "discoverer" of the Piltdown Man
Shinichi Fujimura (born 1950)
Oded Golan (born 1951) — accused of forging the James Ossuary, among other things; he was acquitted of these charges in March 2012
Islam Akhun
Brigido Lara
Moses Shapira (1830–1884)

Art forgers

Giovanni Bastianini (1830–1868)
William Blundell (born 1947)
Chang Dai-chien (1899–1983)
Yves Chaudron
Alceo Dossena (1878–1937)
John Drewe (born 1948)
Kenneth Fetterman
Alfredo Fioravanti (1886–1963)
Shaun Greenhalgh (born 1961) — described by the Metropolitan Police as "the most diverse art forger known in history"
Guy Hain
Eric Hebborn (1934–1996)
Elmyr de Hory (1905–1976) — subject of the Orson Welles documentary F for Fake
Geert Jan Jansen (born 1943)
Tom Keating (1917–1984)
Konrad Kujau (1938–2000) — the author of the Hitler Diaries
Mark A. Landis (born 1955)
Lothar Malskat (1913–1988)
Han van Meegeren (1889–1947) — estimated to have earned the equivalent of over thirty million dollars for his forgeries
Jacques van Meegeren (1912–1977)
John Myatt (born 1945)
Sámuel Literáti Nemes (1796–1842)
Edmé Samson (1810–1891)
Ely Sakhai (born 1952)
Jean-Pierre Schecroun
Émile Schuffenecker (1851–1934)
Karl Sim (born 1923)
David Stein (1935–1999)
Tony Tetro (born 1950)
Robert Thwaites
Franz Tieze (1842–1932)
William J. Toye (born 1931)
Eduardo de Valfierno — allegedly masterminded the 1911 theft of the Mona Lisa
Kenneth Walton (born 1967) — author of the memoir Fake: Forgery, Lies, & eBay
E. M. Washington (born 1962)
Theo van Wijngaarden (1874–1952)

Counterfeiters

Philip Alston (c. 1740 - after 1799)
Anatasios Arnaouti (born 1967)
Trevor Ashmore
Robert Baudin (1918–1983)
Charles Black (born 1928)
William Booth (c. 1778 – 1812)
Mary Butterworth (1686–1775)
William Chaloner (c. 1665 – 1699)
Louis Colavecchio
The Cragg Vale Coiners
Thomas Dangerfield (c. 1650 – 1685)
Mike DeBardeleben (1940–2011)
John Duff (c. 1759 – 1799)
Edward Emery (died c. 1850)
David Farnsworth
Bernhard Krüger (1904–1989) — director of the Nazi counterfeiting plot codenamed Operation Bernhard
Ignazio Lupo (1877–1947)
Catherine Murphy (died 1789) — the last woman to be executed by burning.
Emanuel Ninger (1845–1927)
Bernard von NotHaus — inventor of the Liberty Dollar
Thomas and Anne Rogers (died 1690)
Salomon Smolianoff (1899–1976) — WWII concentration camp detainee and key figure in Operation Bernhard
Samuel C. Upham (1819–1885)
Arthur Williams

Document forgers

Frank Abagnale (born 1948) — subject of the film Catch Me If You Can
Charles Bertram (1723–1765) — author of De Situ Britanniae
Joseph Cosey (1887 – c. 1950)
Przybysław Dyjamentowski (1694–1774)
Michael John Hamdani
Adolfo Kaminsky (born 1925)
Jean LaBanta (born c. 1879)
Maharaja Nandakumar (died 1775)
Richard Pigott (1835–1889)
Piligrim (died 991)
James Reavis (1843–1914)
Alves dos Reis (1898–1955)
Scott Reuben (born 1958)
William Roupell (1831–1909)
William Wynne Ryland (c. 1738 – 1783)
Michael Sabo
Alexander Howland Smith (fl. 1886)
Robert Spring (1813–1876)
Adolf Ludvig Stierneld (1755–1835)
Brita Tott (fl. 1498)
Lucio Urtubia (born 1931)
Denis Vrain-Lucas (1818–1880)
Henry Woodhouse (1884–1970)

Literary forgers

Annio da Viterbo (c. 1432 – 1502)
Sir Edmund Backhouse, 2nd Baronet (1873–1944)
Adémar de Chabannes (c. 988 – 1034)
Thomas Chatterton (1752–1770)
Mark Hofmann (born 1954) — forger of several documents relating to the Latter Day Saint movement, including the Salamander letter
William Henry Ireland (1775–1835) — author of the Ireland Shakespeare forgeries and the pseudepigraphical play Vortigern and Rowena
Clifford Irving (born 1930)
William Lauder (c. 1680 – 1771)
James Macpherson (1736–1796) — the supposed "translator" of the Ossianic poems
Iolo Morganwg (1747–1826)
François Nodot (c. 1650 – 1710)
Francesco Maria Pratilli (1689–1763)
Constantine Simonides (1820–1867)
Clotilde de Surville (fl. 1421)
Charles Weisberg (died 1945)

Musical forgers

Henri Casadesus (1879–1947)
Marius Casadesus (1892–1981) — creator of the Adélaïde Concerto
François-Joseph Fétis (1784–1871)
Fritz Kreisler (1875–1962)
Winfried Michel (born 1948)
David Popper (1843–1913)
Roman Turovsky-Savchuk (born 1961)
Vladimir Vavilov (1925–1973)

Signature forgers

Henry Fauntleroy (1784–1824)
James Townsend Saward (1799 – after 1857)

Stamp forgers

Media

The Art of the Faker — a book about art forgery by Frank Arnau
The Counterfeiters — a movie inspired by the Nazi counterfeiting scheme, Operation Bernhard
F for Fake — an Orson Welles documentary about art forger Elmyr de Hory
Fake Britain — a BBC television series about counterfeiting and its effects on consumers
Fake: Forgery, Lies, & eBay — a memoir by art forger Kenneth Walton
Fake or Fortune? — a BBC television series which examines the provenance of notable artworks
Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology — a book by Kenneth L. Feder on the topic of pseudoarcheology
Pierre Grassou — a novel by Honoré de Balzac about a fictional art forger
Selling Hitler — an ITV drama-documentary about the Hitler Diaries

External links

Forgery and Fakes: Overview, Caslon Analytics.
Sources of information on art forgery, Museum Security Network

Outlines

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