Theosophy (Blavatskian)

The logo for the Theosophical Society brought together various ancient symbols

Theosophy is a religion and a form of Western esotericism. It was established in the United States during the late nineteenth century by Russian émigré Helena Blavatsky, and draws its beliefs largely from Blavatsky's writings.

As taught by Blavatsky, Theosophy holds that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters, who — although found across the world — are centred in Tibet. These Masters are believed to have cultivated great wisdom and paranormal powers, and Theosophists believe that it was they who initiated the modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. They believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found across the world and which will again come to eclipse the existing world religions.

Theosophy was established in New York City with the founding of the Theosophical Society by Blavatsky, Henry Olcott, and William Quan Judge in 1875. Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar, Tamil Nadu. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, there was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the Theosophical Society in America to secede. Under Judge's successor Katherine Tingley, a Theosophical community named Lomaland was established in San Diego. The Adyar-based Society was later taken over by Annie Besant, under whom it grew to its largest extent during the late 1920s.

Theosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of South Asian religions to Western countries, as well as in encouraging cultural pride in various South Asian nations. A variety of prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophical ideas have also exerted an influence on a wide range of other esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy and the New Age.

Definition

Etymology

The scholar of esotericism Joscelyn Godwin has differentiated Theosophy, the movement started by Blavatsky, by referring to it with a capital letter, while the tradition of religious illumination promoted by Jacob Boehme is instead referred to with a lower-case as theosophy.[1] Alternately, the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff distinguished the Blavatskian movement from its older namesake by terming it "modern Theosophy".[2] Followers of Blavatsky's movement are known as Theosophists, while adherents of the older tradition are termed theosophers.[1] A few Theosophists — such as C. C. Massey — were also theosophers.[1]

Religion or philosophy

In his history of the Theosophical movement, the religious studies scholar Bruce F. Campbell referred to Theosophy as "an esoteric religious tradition".[3] However, Theosophical organisations have claimed that it is not a religion and they permit their members to hold other religious allegiances.[4] Campbell noted that despite the fact that Theosophists do not refer to the movement as a religion, it promoted "a religious world-view" using "explicitly religious terms".[5] Its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief.[4]

Beliefs and teachings

Although the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a variety of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members much agree. It therefore has doctrine but not dogma.[6] Many of these teachings were set down in the work of Helena Blavatsky, although revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists like Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater.[6]

The Masters

Hermann Schmiechen's 1884 depiction of the two Masters whom Blavatsky claimed to be in contact with, Koot Humi (left) and Morya (right).

Central to Theosophical belief is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters both exist and were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts.[7] For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement.[8] In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers.[8] They are perceived to be a fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, both in terms of having an advanced moral development and intellectual attainment.[8] They are claimed to have achieved extra-long life spans,[8] and to have gained the power of clairvoyance and to project their soul out of their body to any other location in an instant.[9] These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training.[9] According to Blavatsky, their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of Tibet.[8] She also claimed that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings.[8]

The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge,[9] and to represent a Great White Brotherhood or White Lodge which watches over humanity and guides its evolution.[9] Among those whom the early Theosophists claimed as Masters were Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus, Asian religious figures like Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Laozi, and modern individuals like Jakob Bohme, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Franz Mesmer.[9] However, the most prominent Masters to appear in Theosophical literature are Koot Humi (sometimes spelled Kuthumi) and Morya, with whom Blavatsky claimed to be in contact.[10] According to Theosophical belief, the Masters approach those deemed worthy to embark on an apprenticeship or chelaship.[11] The apprentice would then undergo several years of probation, during which they must live a life of physical purity, remaining chaste, abstinent, and indifferent to physical luxury.[11]

Campbell noted that for non-Theosophists, the claims regarding the existence of the Masters are among the weakest made by the movement.[7] Such claims are open to examination and potential refutation, with challenges to the existence of the Masters therefore undermining Theosophical beliefs.[12] The idea of a brotherhood of secret adepts had a long pedigree stretching back several centuries before he foundation of Theosophy; such ideas can be found in the work of the Rosicrucians, and was popularised in the fictional literature of Edward Bulwer-Lytton.[13] The idea of having messages conveyed to a medium through by spiritually advanced entities had also been popularised at the time of Theosophy's foundation through the Spiritualist movement.[13]

The ancient wisdom religion

According to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion, a "secret doctrine" that was known to Plato and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the centre of every religion.[14] She promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them.[15] Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has conserved this ancient wisdom religion throughout the centuries, and that members of this fraternity hold the key to understanding miracles, the afterlife, and psychic phenomena, and that moreover these adepts themselves have paranormal powers.[16]

She stated that this ancient religion would be revived and spread throughout humanity in the future, replacing dominant world religions like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism.[14]

Theology and cosmology

Theosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute.[17] Theosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or maya,[18] an idea that it draws from Asian religions.[19] Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded.[20]

According to Theosophical teaching, each solar system is an emanation of a "Logos" or "Solar Deity", with planetary spirits each overseeing one of the planets

According to Blavatsky's teaching, every solar system in the universe is the expression of what is termed a "Logos" or "Solar Deity".[21] Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet.[21] In The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the "Planetary Chains"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in the same space.[22] According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there.[23] She claimed that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual.[23] Different levels of evolution occur in a successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral evolution begins on the second planet.[23]

Theosophy teaches that human evolution is tied in with this planetary and wider cosmic evolution.[24] In The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky advocated the idea of seven "Root Races", each of which was divided into seven Sub-Races.[25] In Blavatsky's cosmogony, the first Root Race were created from pure spirit, and lived on a continent known as the "Imperishable Sacred Land".[26] The second Root Race, known as the Hyperboreans, were also formed from pure spirit, and lived on a land near to the North Pole, which then had a mild climate.[26] The third lived on the continent of Lemuria, which Blavatsky alleged survives today as Australia and Rapa Nui.[27] Blavatsky alleged that during the fourth Round of the Earth, higher beings descended to the planet, with the beginnings of human physical bodies developing, and the sexes separating.[28] At this point, the fourth Root Race appeared, living on the continent of Atlantis; they had physical bodies but also psychic powers and advanced technology.[29] She claimed that some Atlanteans were giants, and built such ancient monuments as Stonehenge in southern England, and that they also mated with "she-animals", resulting in the creation of gorillas and chimpanzees.[28] The Atlanteans were decadent and abused their power and knowledge, so Atlantis sunk into the sea, although various Atlanteans escaped, and created new societies in Egypt and the Americas.[28]

The fifth Root Race to emerge was the Aryans, and was found across the world at the time she was writing.[28] She believed that the fifth Race would come to be replaced by the sixth, which would be heralded by the arrival of Maitreya, a figure from Mahayana Buddhist mythology.[30] She further believed that humanity would eventually develop into the final, seventh Root Race.[28] At this, she stated that humanity will have reached the end of its evolutionary cycle and life will withdraw from the Earth.[31] Lachman suggested that by reading Blavatsky's cosmogonical claims as a literal account of history, "we may be doing it a disservice."[28] He instead suggested that it could be read as Blavatsky's attempt to formulate "a new myth for the modern age, or as a huge, fantastic science fiction story".[28]

Personal development

According to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul.[32] The human individual is described as an "Ego" or "Monad" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return.[24] The human being is presented as composing of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being.[33] As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are the Body (Rupa), Vitality (Prana-Jiva), the Astral Body (Linga Sarira), the Animal Soul (Kama-Rupa), the Human Soul (Manas), the Spiritual Soul (Buddhi), and the Spirit (Atma).[24] According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death.[32] Theosophy teaches that the Spiritual Soul and the Spirit do not reside within the human body alongside the other components, but that they are connected to it through the Human Soul.[32]

In Isis Unveiled, Blavatsky stated that on bodily death, the human soul progresses through more spiritual planes.[34] Two years later, she introduced the idea of reincarnation into Theosophical doctrine.[34] According to Theosophical teaching, human souls will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms.[32]

Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka, which she compared to limbo, before also dying.[35] According to this belief, the human then moves into its mental body in a realm called devachan, which she compared to Heaven or paradise.[35] Blavatsky taught that the soul remained in devachan for 1000 to 1500 years, although the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater claimed that it was only 200.[5]

Theosophy espouses the existence of karma as a system which regulates the cycle of reincarnation, ensuring that an individual's actions in one life affect the circumstances of their next one.[36] This belief therefore seeks to explain why misery and suffering exist in the world, attributing any misfortune that someone suffers as punishment for misdeeds that they perpetrated in a prior life.[37]

In The Voice of the Silence, Blavatsky taught that within each individual human there is an eternal, divine facet, which she referred to as "the Master", the "uncreate", the "inner God", and the "higher self". She promoted the idea that uniting with this "higher self" results in wisdom.[20] In that same book, the compared the progress of the human soul to a transition through three halls; the first was that of ignorance, which is the state o the soul before it understands the need to unite with its higher self. The second is the Hall of Learning, in which the individual becomes aware of other facets of human life but is distracted by an interest in psychic powers. The third is the Hall of Wisdom, in which union with the higher self is made; this is then followed by the Vale of Bliss.[20] At this point the human soul can merge into the One.[20]

Morality and ethics

Theosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching,[38] a situation that generated ambiguity.[39] However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement.[39] During its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging chastity even within marriage.[40]

Ritual

The Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific rituals for adherents to practice.[4] However, ritualised practices have been established by various Theosophical groups; one such group is the Liberal Catholic Church.[4] Another are the meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophy, which have been characterised as having a "quasi-sacred and quasi-liturgical" character.[41]

Historical development

The American social situation from which the Theosophical Society emerged was one of great upheaval, and the religious situation was one of challenge to orthodox Christianity. The forces that had surfaced in spiritualism included anticlericalism, anti-institutionalism, eclecticism, social liberalism, and belief in progress and individual effort. Occultism, mediated to America in the form of Mesmerism, Swedenborgianism, Freemasonry, and Rosicrucianism, was present. Recent developments in science led by the 1870s to renewed interest in reconciling science and religion. There was present also a hope that Asian religious ideas could be integrated into a grand religious synthesis.

— Bruce F. Campbell, 1980.[42]

The Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott.[43] Established Christianity in the United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history.[44] Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association, New Thought, Christian Science, and Spiritualism.[45] Theosophy would inherit the idea — then popular in the United States — that emphasized the idea of free will and the inevitability of progress, including on a spiritual level.[46] It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States.[47]

It was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met.[42]

In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels.[43]

In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success.[48]

Post-Blavatsky

During her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different persons that they would be her successor.[49] Three of the most prominent candidates — Olcott, Judge, and Besant — all met in London shortly after to discuss the situation.[48] Judge claimed that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant.[50] Olcott however suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them.[51] Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that the Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her.[52] In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge.[53] A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position.[54] The details of this trial were leaked to the journalist F. Edmund Garrett, who used them as the basis of his critical book, Isis Very Much Unveiled.[55] Judge then announced that the Masters had informed him that he should take sole control of the Esoteric Section, deposing Besant; she rejected his claims.[56] Amid calls from Olcott that Judge should stand down, in April 1895 the American section voted to seceded from the main Society. Judge remained its leader, but died within a year.[57]

Olcott then sent Besant to the United States to gain support for the Adyar-based Society. In this she was successful, gaining thousands of new members and establishing many new branches.[58] Besant had developed a friendship with the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater, and together they co-wrote a number of books.[59] Leadbeater was controversial, and concerns were raised when he was found to have instructed two boys in masturbation. The American Section of the Theosophical Society raised internal charges against him, although Besant came to his defence.[60] In a move probably designed to limit negative publicity for the Society, they accepted his resignation rather than expelling him.[61]

On Olcott's death in 1907, he had nominated Besant to be his successor, and she was then elected to the position with a large majority in June.[62] In her first years as the head of the Society, Besant oversaw a dramatic growth in its membership, raising it by 50%, to 23,000.[63] She also oversaw an expansion of the Adyar property, from 27 to 253 acres.[63] Besant was involved in various activist causes, promoting women's rights in India through the Women's India Association and helping to establish both the Central Hindu College and a Hindu girls' school.[63] Besant also began a campaigner for Indian Home Rule, founding a group called the Home Rule League.[64] She established the New India newspaper, and after continuing to promote Indian independence in the paper's pages during the First World War she was interned for several months.[65] This helped to boost her status within the independence movement, and at the age of 70 she was appointed President of the Indian National Congress, a largely honorary position.[66]

In December 1908, Leadbeater was readmitted to the Society; this generated a wave of resignations, with the Sydney branch seceding to form the Independent Theosophical Society.[46] Leadbeater travelled to Adyar, where he met a young boy living there, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and pronounced him to be the next incarnation of a figure called the World Teacher. He subsequently took control of the boy's instruction for two years.[67] With Besant, Leadbeater established a group known as the Order of the Star in the East to promote the idea of Krishnamurti as World Teacher.[68] Leadbeater also wanted more ritual within Theosophy, and to achieve this he and J. I. Wedgwood became bishops in the Old Catholic Church.[69] They then split from that to form their own Liberal Catholic Church, which was independent from the Theosophical Society (Adyar) while retaining an affiliation with it.[70] However, in 1919 the Church was marred by police investigations into allegations that six of its priests had engaged in sexual perversions and Wedgewood — who was implicated in the allegations — resigned from the organisation.[70]

The Raja Yoga Academy and the Temple of Peace, c. 1915

In retaliation, a "Back to Blavatsky" movement emerged within the Society. Its members pejoratively referred to Besant and her followers as practitioners of "Neo-Theosophy", objecting to the Liberal Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope, and to the prominence that they were according to Besant and Leadbeater's publications.[71] The main benefactor of the disquiet within the Back to Blavatsky movement was a rival group called the United Lodge of Theosophists.[72] One of the most prominent figures to switch allegiance was B. P. Wadia.[73] The United Lodge of Theosophists had been established in Los Angeles in 1909, when it had split from Judge's Theosophical Society in America, seeking to minimise formal organisation.[73] It focused on publishing new editions of Blavatsky and Judge's writings, as well as other books, which were usually released anonymously so as to prevent any personality cults developing within the Theosophical movement.[74]

The Adyar Society membership later peaked at 40,000 in the late 1920s.[75] The Order of the Star had 30,000 members at its height.[75] Krishnamurti himself repudiated these claims, insisting that he was not the World Teacher, and then resigned from the Society; the impact on the society was dramatic, as it lost a third of its membership over the coming few years.[76] Besant died in 1933, when the Society was taken over by George Arundale, who led it until 1945; the group's activities were greatly curtailed by World War II.[77]

Judge left no clear successor as leader of the Theosophical Society in America, but the position was taken by Katherine Tingley, who claimed that she remained in mediumistic contact with Judge's spirit.[78] Kingley launched an international campaign to promote her Theosophical group, sending delegations to Europe, Egypt, and India. In the latter country they clashed with the Adyar-based Theosophical Society, and were unsuccessful in gaining converts.[79] Her leadership would be challenged by Ernest T. Hargrove in 1898, and when he failed he split to form his own rival group.[80] In 1897, Tingley had established a Theosophical community, Lomaland, at Point Loma in San Diego, California.[81] Various Theosophical writers and artists congregated there,[82] while horticultural development was also emphasised.[83] In 1919, the community helped establish a Theosophical University.[84] Longstanding financial problems coupled with an ageing population resulted in the Society selling Lomaland in 1942.[85] Meanwhile, Tingley's death in 1929 had resulted in the Theosophical Society in America being taken over by Gottfried de Purucker, who promoted rapprochement with other Theosophical groups in what came to be known as the Fraternisation movement.[86]

Demographics

During its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement.[87] Campbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents.[88] He noted that in that latter year, there were circa 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c.5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c.1500 members of the Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy.[89]

Theosophical groups consist largely of individuals as opposed to family groups.[31] Campbell noted that these members were alienated in ways from conventional social roles and practices.[31]

Campbell stated that Theosophy attracted "unconventional, liberal-minded Westerners".[90] He also noted that Theosophy appealed to educated Asians, and particularly Indians, because it identified Asia as being central to a universal ancient religion and allowed Asians to retain traditional religious beliefs and practices within a modern framework.[17]

Reception and legacy

The Theosophical Society had significant effects on religion, politics, culture, and society.[91] In the Western world, it was a major force for the introduction of Asian religious ideas.[91] In 1980, Bruce Campbell described it as "probably the most important non-traditional or occult group in the last century".[91]

Many esoteric groups — such as Alice Bailey's Arcane School and Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy — are "directly dependent" on Theosophy.[91] Although he had split from Theosophy when renouncing Leadbeater's claim that he was the World Teacher, Krishnamurti continued to exhibit Theosophical influences in his later teachings.[92] In 1923 a former Theosophist, the Anglo-American Alice Bailey, established the Arcane School, which also rested on claims regarding contact with the Ascended Masters.[93] Another former Theosophist, the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, split from the Theosophical Society over the claims about Krishnamurti and then established his own Anthroposophical Society in 1913, which promoted Anthroposophy, a philosophy influenced by Theosophical ideas.[94] In the United States during the 1930s, the I AM group was established by Guy Ballard and Edna Ballard; the group adopted the idea of the Ascended Masters from Theosophy.[95] The idea of the Masters—and a belief in Morya and Kuthumi—have also been adopted into the belief system of the Church Universal and Triumphant.[96] The Canadian mystic Manly P. Hall also cited Blavatsky's writings as a key influence on his ideas.[97]

Theosophy also exerted an influence on the sciences and the arts. Prominent scientists who had belonged to the Theosophical Society included the inventor Thomas Edison, the biologist Alfred Russel Wallace, and the chemist William Crookes.[98] Theosophy was also an influence over a number of early pioneers of abstract art. The Russian abstract expressionist Wassily Kandinsky was very interested in Theosophy and Theosophical ideas about colour.[99] The Dutch abstract artist Piet Mondrian was also influenced by Theosophical symbolism.[100] Theosophical ideas were also an influence on the Irish literary movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, with writers like Charles Johnston, George Russell, John Eglinton, Charles Weeks, and William Butler Yeats having an interest in the movement.[101]

In approaching Asian religion with respect and treating its religious beliefs seriously, Blavatsky and Olcott had an impact on South Asian society.[98] In India, it played an important role in the Indian independence movement and in the Buddhist revival.[91] The Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi developed much of his interest in Hindu culture after being given a copy of the Bhagavad Gita by two Theosophists.[102]

Most early publications on Theosophy fell into two camps: either apologetic and highly defensive, or highly antagonistic and aggressive towards the movement.[103]

Campbell suggested that Theosophy could be seen as a "grandfather" movement to this 20th century growth in Asian spirituality.[103] Given the spread of such ideas in the West, some critics have perceives Theosophy's role as being largely obsolete.[104]

Sources

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 3 Godwin 1994, p. xii.
  2. ↑ Hanegraaff 2013, p. 130.
  3. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 38.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Campbell 1980, p. 196.
  5. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 72.
  6. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 191.
  7. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 61.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Campbell 1980, p. 53.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Campbell 1980, p. 54.
  10. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 55–56.
  11. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 55.
  12. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 199.
  13. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 56.
  14. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 36.
  15. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 37.
  16. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 37–38.
  17. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 62.
  18. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 47.
  19. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 51.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Campbell 1980, p. 49.
  21. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 63.
  22. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 43, 63.
  23. 1 2 3 Campbell 1980, p. 43.
  24. 1 2 3 Campbell 1980, p. 64.
  25. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 44; Lachman 2012, p. 256.
  26. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 44; Lachman 2012, p. 255.
  27. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 44; Lachman 2012, pp. 255–256.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lachman 2012, p. 256.
  29. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 44–45; Lachman 2012, p. 256.
  30. ↑ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 223.
  31. 1 2 3 Campbell 1980, p. 45.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Campbell 1980, p. 68.
  33. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 66.
  34. 1 2 Campbell 1980, pp. 38–39.
  35. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 71.
  36. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 69.
  37. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 70, 71.
  38. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 74.
  39. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 194.
  40. ↑ Godwin 1994, p. 348.
  41. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 196–197.
  42. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 20.
  43. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 2.
  44. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 8.
  45. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 8–9.
  46. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 18.
  47. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 19.
  48. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 104.
  49. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 103.
  50. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 104–105.
  51. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 105–106.
  52. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 106.
  53. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 107–108.
  54. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 108–109.
  55. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 110.
  56. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 110–111.
  57. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 111.
  58. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 113–114.
  59. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 114–115.
  60. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 115–116.
  61. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 116.
  62. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 117–118.
  63. 1 2 3 Campbell 1980, p. 119.
  64. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 122–123.
  65. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 123–124.
  66. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 124.
  67. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 119–120.
  68. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 121.
  69. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 125–126.
  70. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 126.
  71. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 126–127.
  72. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 127.
  73. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 143.
  74. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 143–144.
  75. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 128.
  76. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 128, 130.
  77. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 130.
  78. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 131, 133.
  79. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 134.
  80. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 135.
  81. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 135–137.
  82. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 138.
  83. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 138–139.
  84. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 137.
  85. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 140–141.
  86. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 141–142.
  87. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 147.
  88. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 175.
  89. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 177.
  90. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 94.
  91. 1 2 3 4 5 Campbell 1980, p. 1.
  92. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 148.
  93. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 150–153.
  94. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 155–158.
  95. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 1, 161–163.
  96. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 163.
  97. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 163–165.
  98. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. 165.
  99. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 169–170.
  100. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 170–171.
  101. ↑ Campbell 1980, pp. 165–169.
  102. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 172.
  103. 1 2 Campbell 1980, p. vii.
  104. ↑ Campbell 1980, p. 201.

Bibliography

Campbell, Bruce F. (1980). Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
Godwin, Joscelyn (1994). The Theosophical Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791421512. 
Hanegraaff, Wouter (2013). Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1441136466. 
Lachman, Gary (2012). Madame Blavatsky: The Mother of Modern Spirituality. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. ISBN 978-1-58542-863-2. 
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