Toltec Empire
| Toltec Empire | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Altepetl Tolteca | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| disputed | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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 Approximate influence of the Toltecs in 950 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Tollan-Xicocotitlan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Languages | Nahuatl, Itza’, Mixtec, Zapotec, Totonac, Otomi, Pame, Purépecha, others | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Toltec religion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tlatoani | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 496-510 | Huemac I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 510-562 | Chalchiuhtlanetzin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 923-947 | Ce Acatl Topiltzin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 1047-1122 | Huemac | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Classic/Post Classic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Toltecs leave Teotihuacan | 496 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Treaty between the Toltecs and Chichimeca | 567 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl conquers the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula | c.930 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Mexica Invasion | 1122 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Quachtli | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| a. | The status of the Toltecs as an empire has been disputed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| b. | Weather Yucatan was actually a province of the Toltec empire or an area where the toltecs had a heavy influence has also been disputed | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
According to Aztec historiography, the Toltec Empire, Toltec Kingdom or Altepetl Tolteca was a political entity in Mexico. It existed through the classic and post classic periods of Mesoamerican chronology, but gained most of its power in the Post classic. During this time its sphere of influence reached as far away as the Yucatan Peninsula. Its core cities were Tula, Tulancingo, and Huapalcalco, the more distant cities under its control and influence were Chupícuaro, Chichen Itza, and Coba.
History
Classic
Before Tula
In the late 5th century Teotihuacan was the most powerful city in central Mexico. The Toltecs were one ethnicity living in the city. Around 496 they were forced to leave, led by Huémac I (476-572), and many of them moved to Tula. The others migrated to Tlillan-Tlapallan. The Toltecs and Chichimeca were constantly at war. Huémac I decided to make peace with the Chichimeca and form a permanent monarchy. In the treaty, the Tlatoani to succeed Huémac was to be Chalchiuhtlanetzin, who was Chichimeca. The date that the treaty was created is disputed, but was probably 510 or 567. Either way Huémac continued living after Chalchiuhtlanetzin was crowned.
After the founding of Tula
The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several Aztec Codices although there are contradictions in most of them.
According to a legend, in 843 a Toltec man named Papantzin invented a type of sugar made from the Agave plant. He and his daughter Xochitl brought the sugar as a gift to the Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, ninth Tlatoani of the Toltecs. Tecpancaltzin fell in love with Xochitl, but she did not share his feelings. He kept her in his palace not allowing her to leave. He convinced Papantzin not to help her by telling him that when Tecpancaltzin died, Xochitl would be the ruler of the Toltecs. They had a son named Maeconetzin.
Xochitl threatened to leave in 846 but Tecpancaltzin managed to keep her there by promising Maeconetzin would be the next Tlatoani.[1]
After Tecpancaltzin died, Xochitl became empress. Under her reign there was a civil war. To stop the war she created a legion of soldiers made up completely of women. Xochitl was successful in re-uniting the Toltecs, but she died in battle.
Conquest of Yucatan
Ce Acatl Topiltzin (in Toltec; in Maya Kukulkan or Kukulcan) was the fourteenth Tlatoani of the Toltecs. Who his parents were is unknown, but in mythological his father was Mixcōatl and his mother Chimalman. Topiltzin and the god Quetzalcoatl are often mixed together and confused.
He was born in Tepoztlan. By the age of thirteen he was studying at a college in Xochicalco. In 877 he was elected as Tlatoani of the Toltecs. Shortly after he was "tempted" by the god Tezcatlipoca and was exilded. During this time he may have founded Cuzcatlan. In 881 he moved to Chichen Itza or Uxmal. There he became friends with the Maya ruler Ulil I (not to be confused with Ah Ulil). He then moved to Cholula, where he devoted several years of his life to study. Eventually he became Tlatoani again and conquered much of northern Yucatán. After that he disappeared off the coast at Hueitlapala or Huehuetlapallan, near present day city of Coatzacoalcos.
Decline
The decline of the Toltecs started with the loss of Yucatan. In the 970s, Toltec control faded out and Yucatan descended into anarchy until 987 when the League of Mayapan was founded.
Post classic
Collapse
In the 12th century, around 1122, Tula was burned down. The largest damage was in the main plazas, pyramids, administrative buildings, and palaces. As in much of Mesoamerica there was famine, civil war, and uprisings. The finale event to destroy Tula was a Mexica invasion.
There was a sixty percent population decrease in central Mexico after the end of Tula. The area remained divided into several different Altepetl until the beginning of the Mexica Empire in 1428.
Legend of Huemac
In 1018 there was a famine, which lasted 7 years. According to legend the sorcerers Yaotl and Tezcatlipoca "requisitioned" Huemac's children and sacrificed them, leaving their bodies in lakes.
In 1058, the earth goddesses called Ixcuinanme arrived, and they took captives and sacrificed them with arrows. This becomes a regularly occurring type of sacrifice in the name of the Ixcuinanme.
"that was when the arrow shoot was founded".
In 1063, Yaotl returned and started a war between the Toltecs and an unnamed opponent. The Toltecs took prisoners and Yaotl incites them to use the prisoners as human sacrifices. This is how this type of human sacrifice "got started". At this time he also sang songs at Texcalapan, and then he grabs a woman and flays her skin. He made one of the Toltecs wear the skin, and this was the origin of that kind of sacrifice.
In 1122, the Toltecs disbanded. Huemac lead them and they traveled to Cincoc and there Huemac sacrificed a human streamer. They traveled to Cuauhnenec, where Huemac's wife gave birth. They traveled to Teocompan, and there, standing on a cactus, was the sorcerer Yaotl. Yaotl called out a number of the Toltecs to him, to settle under him in Xaltocan. The rest of the Toltecs traveled on.
By 1128, the Toltecs had been wandering for 7 years, and had dispersed throughout the lands of Anahuac (the world). Huamac ended up in the cave called Cincalco, near Chapoltepec, and, seeing no more Toltecs behind him, he hanged himself.[2]
Rulers
List of rulers
Aztec documents describe the Toltecs rulers, but contradict each other, and The Toltec Calendar has not yet been completely deciphered. There were at least fifteen Tlatoani and possibly more than twenty. All dates AD
| Name | Reign | Lifespan | Family |
|---|---|---|---|
| Huemac I | 496-510 | 476-572 | |
| Chalchiuhtlanetzin | 510-562 | ||
| Ixtlilcuechahauac | 562-614 | ||
| Huetzin | 614-666 | ||
| Totopeuh | 666-718 | ||
| Nacaxoc | 718-770 | ||
| Mitl Tlaomihua | 770-829 | ||
| Xihuiquenitzin | 829-833 | ||
| Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin | 833-877 | ?-911 | Mother: Xihuiquenitzin
Wife: Xochitl Son: Maeconetzin |
| Ce Acatl Topiltzin (Kukulkan) | 877-947 | ||
| Matlacxochtli | 947–983 | ||
| Nauhyotzin | 983–997 | ||
| Matlaccoatzin | 997–1025 | ||
| Xiuhtlaltzin | 1025-1039 | ||
| Tilcoatin | 1039–1046 | ||
| Huemac II | 1047–1122 |
According to other documents
| Name | Reign | Lifespan | Family |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin | 833-? | ?-911 | Mother: Xihuiquenitzin
Wife: Xochitl Son: Maeconetzin |
| Xochitl | ?-? | ||
| Micoamazatzin | ?-? | ||
| Huetzin II | 869-? | ||
| Totopeuh II | ?-887 | ||
| Ihuitimal | 887–923 | ||
| Ce Acatl Topiltzin (Kukulkan) | 923-947 | ||
Government
Governors of the various Toltec regions were taken from the ranks of the nobles. They took part in the councils convened on the death of each king to determine the fitness of candidates hoping to be named heir. This was a usual Mesoamerican pattern in the historical era of the Toltec, one adopted by the Aztec and later cultures. These same aristocrats would also have been instrumental in the collection of tribute from the vassal or allied cities and regions. Such tribute was a hallmark of the Toltec Empire, providing increased economic stability. The tribute received from other groups was distributed as part of the wealth of the Toltec upper classes or provided to those in need in the lower ranks of society. Some tribute, however, was set aside as a resource to be utilized in the vast Toltec trade enterprises.
Society
Commoners
Because agriculture was basic to the Toltec economy, the farmers, although far removed in status from the aristocracy, were in the majority and were secure in their rights and privileges. Tula, the Toltec capital, held a diverse population throughout the Toltec era. Commoners in the capital would have come from other cultures and from allied or vassal states.
Upper Classes
Artists and craftsmen were especially valued and were a special force within the Toltec government, as were the merchants. Toltec priests and warriors made up the other castes in Toltec society. Generally the aristocratic ranks of the Mesoamerican cultures held the commanding positions, but within the priestly and warrior groups certain commoners, especially those who demonstrated courage, wisdom, intellect and the ability to lead, might advance to certain levels of power. Restrictions were enforced within the Toltec government to ensure that commoners did not exceed themselves beyond a certain point, but worthy candidates for less powerful offices were drawn from all ranks.
Slavery
The status of slaves in the Toltec world is not documented. It is known, however, that the Huaxtec and others were carried weeping into Tula, possibly as victims for sacrificial ceremonies or as doomed chattel.[4] However, generally in Mesoamerican culture slavery was much less harsh than in western civilization. For instance in Mexica culture slaves were freed if they were physically abused, pregnant, or married.
Gender
Gender roles in Toltec culture are obscure. Most of the Toltec emperors were men, and in Mexica culture girls normally stayed home when boys went to school. However, there were entire legions of the Toltec army made up entirely of women.
Art
There are many types of Toltec art, Mainly sculptures, paintings, figurines, and precious items made of jade, gold, turquoise, and other valuable materials.
Architecture
At its height Tula may have had a population as high as 85,000 (60,000 in the city and another 25,000 in the area). It was much smaller than classic cities such as Teotihuacan and Tikal, or later cities such as Tenochtitlan and Cholula, although at the time it may have been the largest city in Mesoamerica. The inhabitants of Tula lived mostly in large apartment complexes. There were distinct neighborhoods. Each inhabited by people from different areas and of different classes living separately. Apart from apartment people lived in palaces and group homes. Although Chichen Itza is far from Tula, Toltec influence is obvious on buildings such as the pyramid of Kukulkan and the market. Most of Tula was set up in a grid plan. The buildings were made of stone with an adobe finish. The Atlanteans of Tula are several statues representing Mixcoatl, father of Quetzalcoatl. When they were first built they were painted and decorated with gold and jewels. Some of them were used as columns to hold up the roof of the great room in the temple of Tlahuizcalpantecutli. This use of Statues as columns is thought to have been common in Toltec architecture. Outside of Chichen Itza the toltecs had little influence on the architecture in Yucatan.
| Toltec architecture | ||||||||||||||||
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Sculpting
Some of the most famous Toltec sculptures are the Atlanteans of Tula. These monoliths measure just over 4.5 meters high. They are carved in stone basalt, and are representations of warriors Toltecs. They are clothed in butterfly breastplates. Their weapons are atlatls, darts, knives of flint, and curved weapon that are characteristic of the warrior representations of Toltec culture. The monumental Atlanteans are at the top of the Temple Tlahuizcalpantecutli also called "Morning Star" from which all the main plaza is seen, these sculptures are characterized by their large size (an example of the skill the Toltecs had for working with stone).
The Toltecs also made many smaller ceramic and stone figurines.
Chac Mools
Main article Chac Mool
Chac mools are reclining figures with their heads facing 90 degrees from the front, leaning on their elbows and holding a bowl or a disk on there chest.[5]
Chac mools were first made in the Tula area in the 9th century, as Toltec power and influence grew chac mools began to be made in other areas such as Michoacán and Yucatan. Despite the decline in Toltec culture Chac mools continued to spread as far away as Costa Rica in approximately 1000 CE.[6]
The meaning of chac mools varied across different parts of Mesoamerica. There are three uses generally given to chac mool statues.
The first is that they were used as offering tables were pulque, tamales, tortillas, tobacco, turkeys, feathers and incense were given to the gods.
Chac mools were used by the Mexica for sacrificial purposes. Human hearts were placed in the bowls on the statues stomach.
Chac mools may also have been used in the yacaxapotlaliztli ceremony were a future rulers nose was pierced. Several chac mools in Tula and Chichen Itza have pierced noses and may have been used in the ceremony.
Valuables
The toltecs made many pieces of jewelry such as earplugs and nose rings. Much of these fine masks were made of gold turquoise and most of all jade.
International Relations
Totonacapan
Totonacapan was the name of a kingdom in Veracruz. In the late 9th or early 10th century, (probably during the reign of Ce Acatl Topiltzin) the Toltecs invaded Totonacapan. The conquered most of the Totonac area including El Tajin. Many of the Totonacs fled as refuges to Cempoala. Records of this are obscure but from what is known Cempoala was never conquered.
It is known for sure that the toltecs founded colonies in Veracruz.[7]
Chichen Itza
One of the most controversial topics involving the Toltecs is what their relation to Chichén Itzá was. The similarities between the two cities has raised several hypotheses about the nature of the links between the two, although none of them have the full support of the specialists in the field. Désiré Charnay was the first person who pointed out that the main plazas of Tula and Chichen were similar. Maya legend as well as several Maya documents such as the Chilam Balam of Muyil provide information about an invasion by Kukulkan. After this invasion Kukulkan enforced his rule over the Maya by having them carve several statues of him. Despite this control over the Yucatecs the toltecs did not change the system of government in Chichen Itza. They allowed the same people to stay in office.
The rest of Yucatan
Chichen Itza would eventually become the largest city in Yucatan with a population of at least 50,000 people.[8] Almost as many people as lived in Coba during the classic period.[9] Coba was in decline at the time of the Toltec conquest. Coba had been in control of Yaxuna since c. 700. About 900 Chichen Itza won a lengthy war with Coba. It and Yaxuna became isolated until the Toltec invasion.
Starting in the mid 8th century, Maya civilization began to collapse. At the time of the Toltec invasion most of the major Maya cities were collapsing. The other powerful cities in the Yucatan peninsula were:
- Uxmal, capitol of The Puuc Kingdom
- Jaina a small city on an island in marshland on the coast of the gulf of Mexico.
- Xtampak capitol of Chene
- Izamal
- Dzibilchaltun
- Edzna in the Puuc kingdom
- Calakmul a classic city being destroyed as part of the Maya Collapse
- Sayil
- Kabah
- Muyil
- Zama
- Mayapan
- Ek' Balam capitol of the Talol kingdom
La Quemada
Toltec control expanded much further north then Mexica control. One of the northernmost cities believed to be Toltec is La Quemada. La Quemada was first built around 300 CE. Between 350 and 700, it had extensive trade with teotihuacan. La Quemada was abandoned after the fall of Tula in 1222. It was burned down hence the name La Quemada, Quemada being Spanish for burned.
Wupatki
It has been claimed that Wupatki a mediaeval pueblo town was Toltec outpost. This theory is mainly supported by the existence of ball courts in the town. Whether the ball game played by the Arizona pueblo is related to the Mesoamerican ball game is unknown, but there are clear similarities. It is known that the toltecs had trade with the pueblo people[10]
Chupícuaro
The Chupícuaro culture was important due to the influence it had in the area. It is possible it spread to southern United States around 500 BCE. There are theories that the first Guanajuato inhabitants belonged to this culture.[11]
The city of Chupícuaro was inhabited between 800 BCE and 1200 CE. Chupícuaro developed in a vast territory in, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Guerrero, Mexico State, Hidalgo, Colima, Nayarit, Querétaro and Zacatecas.
Chupícuaro was influenced by the toltecs between c. 900 and c. 1200
Warfare
The Toltecs elevated warfare into a religious and state-controlled status in the region, which reached its peak with the Mexica military power in the centuries following the fall of Tula. Militarism was vital aspect of the Toltec Empire, one that carried distinction and honor and endowed an entire class of warriors. The Atlanteans of Tula are adorned with symbols of Quetzalcoatl distinguishing them as servants of the nation. The Toltec warriors adopted Huitzilopochtli, the Nahua god of war, as a patron after Ce Acatl Topiltzin left Tula. The Toltec were skilled in battle, ferocious and highly trained. A standing army, garrisons, forts and reserve units comprised a formidable weapon against inhabitants of regions coveted by the Toltec and against enemies. Because of their skill and their bravery in battle, the Toltec were able to instill enough awe and respect among their neighbors that cities such as Tula could be built without heavy defenses incorporated into their design. Coyote, Jaguar, and eagle were some of the higher ranks or the Toltec military.[12] The upper ranks of the Toltec army wore cotton armor, heavily padded to deflect enemy, arrows and spears, with breastplates, in the form of coyotes, jaguars or eagles if the warrior belonged to the order of one of these animal totems. A round shield was carried into battle, and the swords were fastened with belts. A short kilt protected the lower half of the torso, and the legs and ankles were covered with sandals and straps. Quetzal plumes decorated warriors' helmets, and skins, plumage and other materials probably were used as emblems of the particular god or order that they served. The fact that the warriors depicted wore nose ornaments indicates that they were of noble rank. Some of the warriors wore beards.[13]
References
- ↑ Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, King Of Toltecas
- ↑ http://www.ericrosenfield.com/huemac.html
- ↑ http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=mes014&DatabaseName=Ancient+and+Medieval+History+Online&dTitle=Toltec+Rulers+and+Their+Eras&SID=3&InputText=%22Anales+De+Cuauhtitlan%22&SearchStyle=&BioCountPass=10&SubCountPass=9&DocCountPass=0&ImgCountPass=0&MapCountPass=1&MedCountPass=1&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=1&TabRecordType=Media&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=&WorldData=&AncientData=Set&GovernmentData=
- ↑ http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=MES1239&SID=2&DatabaseName=Ancient+and+Medieval+History+Online&InputText=%22Topiltzin%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=government%2C+Toltec&TabRecordType=Subject+Entry&BioCountPass=4&SubCountPass=18&DocCountPass=2&ImgCountPass=0&MapCountPass=2&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=2&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=11&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=&WorldData=&AncientData=Set&GovernmentData=
- ↑ "MillerTaube93-03,p60"
- ↑ Solano 26 February 2012.
- ↑ http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=MES1239&SID=2&DatabaseName=Ancient+and+Medieval+History+Online&InputText=%22Topiltzin%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=government%2C+Toltec&TabRecordType=Subject+Entry&BioCountPass=4&SubCountPass=18&DocCountPass=2&ImgCountPass=0&MapCountPass=2&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=2&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=11&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=&WorldData=&AncientData=Set&GovernmentData=
- ↑ http://www.hiddencancun.com/hc/mayan-ruin-chichen-itza.php
- ↑ http://havecamerawilltravel.com/mayan-ruins-coba-mexico-photos
- ↑ http://www.philipcoppens.com/wupatki.html
- ↑ "Historia prehispánica" [Prehispanic History]. León-Gto. Retrieved October 2010.
- ↑ http://www.britannica.com/hispanic_heritage/article-9072814
- ↑ http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=MES1242&SID=2&DatabaseName=Ancient+and+Medieval+History+Online&InputText=%22warfare+Toltec%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=warfare%2C+Toltec&TabRecordType=All+Records&BioCountPass=0&SubCountPass=1&DocCountPass=0&ImgCountPass=0&MapCountPass=0&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=0&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=1&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=&WorldData=&AncientData=Set&GovernmentData=