Caracol

Not to be confused with Karakol.
This article is about the Maya archaeological site in Belize. For the military manoeuvre, see Caracole. For other uses, see Caracol (disambiguation).
For the Québécoise singer see Carole Facal.
Caracol

View from atop Caracol

View from atop of Caracol
Location within Mesoamerica
Location Cayo District, Belize
Region Cayo District
Coordinates 16°45′50″N 89°7′3″W / 16.76389°N 89.11750°W / 16.76389; -89.11750Coordinates: 16°45′50″N 89°7′3″W / 16.76389°N 89.11750°W / 16.76389; -89.11750
History
Founded 1200 BCE
Periods Preclassic to Postclassic
Cultures Maya civilization

Caracol is the name given to a large ancient Maya archaeological site, located in what is now the Cayo District of Belize. It is situated approximately 40 kilometres south of Xunantunich and the town of San Ignacio Cayo, and 15 kilometers away from the Macal River. It rests on the Vaca Plateau at an elevation of 500 meters above sea-level, in the foothills of the Maya Mountains.[1] Long thought to be a tertiary center, it is now known that the site was one of the most important regional political centers of the Maya Lowlands during the Classic Period.[2] Caracol covered approximately 200 square kilometers,[3] covering an area much larger than present-day Belize City (the largest metropolitan area in the country) and supported more than twice the modern city's population.[4]

Etymology

"Caracol" is a modern name from Spanish: caracol "snail, shell", but more generally meaning spiral- or volute-shaped apparently on account of the winding access road that led to the site.[1][5] Local tour guides say that the nickname "Caracol" originates from the large population of snails present on the site. Researchers would say to go to "that one place with all the snails", and this eventually developed into just referring to it as "Caracol". When visiting the site you will see that snails are quite literally everywhere. Its ancient name has been reconstructed from the Emblem Glyph popular among its early rulers - Ux Witz Ajaw, or “Three Hills Lord”. The full name of Caracol would be "Three-Hills Water," read Oxwitza',[6] Uxwitza’ or, Hispanicised, "Oxhuitza". This place name may also reference the Three Stone Place of creation.

Discovery

The site was first reported by a native logger named Rosa Mai, who came across its remains in 1937 while searching for mahogany hardwood trees to exploit.[1] Mai reported the site to the archaeological commission for British Honduras, today Belize. In 1938 the archaeological commissioner, A. H. Anderson visited the site for two weeks along with a colleague H. B. Jex [Hugh Blockley Jex - who later became Inspector of Crown Licence]. It was Anderson who gave the site its modern name. They conducted preliminary surveys, noted 9 carved monuments, took notes on the structures of the A Group Plaza, and undertook limited excavations in two locations.[1][2] A. H. Anderson and Linton Satterthwaite later discovered 40 stone monuments.[7]

Excavations, investigations, and modern development

The site was first noted and documented archaeologically in 1937 by A. H. Anderson. More extensive explorations and documentation of the site was undertaken by Linton Satterthwaite of the University Museum at the University of Pennsylvania from 1950 to 1953.[1] During this time Satterthwaite primarily focused on finding and documenting monuments, later removing several stelae and altars to the University Museum. In the early 1980s, Paul Healy of Trent University investigated Caracol’s core area, recording several architectural groups, and noting the extensive terrace systems and high population density for the surrounding area.[2]

The Caracol Archaeological Project (ongoing every year since 1985) is directed by Drs. Arlen and Diane Chase of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), United States. The 1988-1989 field seasons researched the southeast section of the site, between the Conchita and Pajaro-Romonal Causeways, to determine the impact of the Tikal-Naranjo wars.[8][9] From 1994 to 1996, the project focused investigations in the northeast section of the site (near the Puchituk terminus) which showed great time depth dating to the Middle Preclassic, and on the growth and cohesion of the site during Caracol’s two major periods of aggression. In the spring dry season of 2009 they conducted a LiDAR survey with an aircraft that allowed a very rapid assessment of the entire site and surrounds, mapping 200 square kilometers, with results published in May 2010.[10]

The only road Caracol may be accessed by is paved for the last ten miles and leads to the Western Highway between San Ignacio and Belmopan and to Santa Elena.

Caana ("sky-palace") is the largest building at Caracol. It remains one of the largest man-made structures in Belize.

Exploration timeline


Population

At Caracol, there are approximately 267 structures per square kilometer, 85% higher than Tikal.[1] The site covers approximately 200 square kilometers,[3] and within this area, structures are generally situated equidistantly and are integrated with the terrace system. The town grew into one of the largest ancient Maya cities, covering some 177 km² with an estimated population of over 100,000 [7][16] with settlement focused along the many radiating causeways (potentially peaking between 120,000 and up to 180,000)

History

Caana

The Caracol area was occupied as early as 1200 BC, yet occupation in the epicentral area was no earlier than 650 BC and lasted no later than AD 950.[7] Caracol boasts 53 carved stone monuments (25 stelae and 28 altars), and more than 250 burials and 200 caches.[7]

By the Early Classic (between AD 250 and 550) Caracol was tied into extensive trade networks and pan-lowland ideological systems,[7] leading to a unified regional economy [17] The Caracol was officially founded in AD 331 (8.14.13.10.4) by Te’ K’ab Chaak. Special Deposit C117F-1, a Teotihuacan style cremation of three individuals dates precisely to this period, indicating early influences from northern Mexico [15]

Wars with Tikal

Caracol was at first a client state of the more powerful city of Tikal, 76 km to the northwest. Tikal's influence weakened during the mid-sixth century; losing control of Naranjo, located halfway between the two cities (42 km from each site),[18] to rival Calakmul. In AD 531, Lord K'an I acceded to the throne.[6][19] Lord Water (Yajaw Te' K'inich II) acceded to power in AD 553 under the auspices of Tikal's Lord Double Bird (Wak Chan K'awiil).[6] Then, in AD 556 Tikal enacted a ch’ak (axe) war event, and defeated Caracol; this caused Lord Water to enact the first known star-war event in 562 (9.6.8.4.2), and defeated Tikal's Lord Wak Chan K’awiil (Double Bird).[6][7][18] These poorly understood star war conflicts are usually associated with long hiatuses and the fall of dynasties. The name comes from the glyph, which shows a star (presumably Venus) pouring liquid on the earth.[6] This particular star-war event was the cause of the archaeologically and epigraphically demonstrated Tikal mid-Classic hiatus, which saw a decline in Tikal's population, a cessation of monument erection, and the destruction of certain monuments in the Great Plaza.[18] This 120-year-long hiatus at Tikal occurred as Caracol’s population and monumental construction increased, and the site became more prosperous and cohesive. This event also saw Tikal take on cultural characteristics of Caracol;[1] even with the renewed erection of monuments at Tikal, their style mimicked that of Caracol.

Yajaw Te’ K’inich II passed on his throne to the eldest of his two sons, Knot Ajaw, in AD 599; his younger brother K’an II succeeded him in AD 618. K'an II performed a ritual of alliance in Calakmul's territory the following January (9.9.5.13.8).[20] K’an II is described as the most successful Caracol ruler. Reigning for 40 years from AD 618 to 658, he expanded the causeway system and saw an increase in the site’s population.[6]

In AD 627 (9.9.14.3.5), Lord Kan II attacked Caracol’s sometime ally Naranjo in a hubi (destruction) war event. He attacked again in 628, and sacrificed its king. He then led a star-war against Naranjo in AD 631 (9.9.18.16.3). He did it a fourth time in 636. In AD 637, he celebrated his first reigning k’atun by dedicating the Hieroglyphic Stairway at Naranjo itself.[20]

Prosperity

Beginning in AD 636, there was a building boom at Caracol at the conclusion of the Tikal-Naranjo wars.[18] Entering the Late Classic period, the site still demonstrated widespread cohesion. During this time Caracol also had a unique burial pattern, focusing on multiple burials in special chambers.[21] This pattern is seen spreading out through the Peten region likely controlled by Caracol, although this spread is independent of other material cultural indicators (like caching practices). K’an II commissioned more monuments than any other ruler, and ushered in the ‘golden age’ of Caracol.[19]

Twenty nine days before his death, Kan II ‘witnessed’ the accession of his successor, K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich II on 9.11.5.14.0 – AD 658.[6] During K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich II's reign, Caracol was defeated in a star-war event by Naranjo; his only monuments appear at La Rejolla.[6]

Lasting from AD 702 (Stela 21) to 798 (Ballcourt Marker 3), this period lacks any hieroglyphic texts. Archaeologically however, this period is correlated with an increase in site-wide prosperity. After the AD 798 date, the site core is still prosperous, yet shows less cohesion between the center and outlying areas.[8]

Warfare event credited to K’inich Joy K'awil on Stela 11 (erected AD 800), indicating the capture of eight captives; then in 800 CE, K’inich Joy K'awiil captured the lord of Ucanal. Caana was also refinished during this period.

K’inich Toobil Yopaat’s accession date is not certain (c. AD 804), but he erected five (possibly six) monuments, and seems to have repaired relations with Ucanal.[6] In AD 820, he enacted an axe event against Tikal.

Collapse

Evidence suggests that Caracol weathered the initial part of the Maya collapse.[1] Through symbolic egalitarianism, it seems that the majority of the Late Classic population had access to ‘elite’ material goods. However, the transition to the Terminal Classic sees a shift away from symbolic egalitarianism, when the elite developed their own ceramic traditions and had access to goods no longer available to the populace.[3]

The last recorded date at Caracol is AD 859 – 10.1.10.0.0, on Stele 10. Caana’s abandonment dates to approximately AD 900;[18] several other structures have occupation that dates to the Terminal Classic period. Structure A6 was abandoned in AD 1050, and marks the final abandonment of the site.

Known war events

Date Victor Defeated Nature of Warfare
9.6.2.1.11 Tikal Caracol Axe Event
9.6.8.4.2 Caracol Tikal Star-War
9.9.13.4.4 Caracol Naranjo Hubi (destruction)
9.9.14.3.5 Caracol Naranjo Hubi
9.9.18.16.3 Caracol Naranjo Star-War
9.10.3.2.12 Caracol Naranjo Star-War
9.12.7.14.1 Naranjo Caracol Star-War
Pre-9.18.10.0.0 Caracol Ucanal Capture ?
Post-9.19.9.9.15 Caracol Tikal Axe Event

[18]

Monument chronology

Gregorian Date Long Count Altars Stelae
AD 400 8.18.4.4.14 Stela 20
AD 495 9.3.0.0.0 2 Ajaw Altar 4
AD 504 9.3.10.0.0 Altar 19
AD 514 9.4.0.0.0 13 Ajaw Altar 7 Stela 13
AD 534 9.5.0.0.0 11 Ajaw Altars 3, 14 ?? Stela 16
AD 554 9.6.0.0.0 9 Ajaw Altar 5 Stela 14
AD 573 9.7.0.0.0 7 Ajaw Altar 6 Stela 15
AD 583 9.7.10.0.0 Altar 24 Stela 4
AD 593 9.8.0.0.0 5 Ajaw Altar 1 Stela 1
AD 603 9.8.10.0.0 Stela 6
AD 613 9.9.0.0.0 3 Ajaw Altars 11, 15 Stela 5
AD 633 9.10.0.0.0 1 Ajaw Altar 21 Stelae 7, 22
AD 652 9.11.0.0.0 12 Ajaw Altars 7, 17 Stela 3
AD 702 9.13.10.0.0 Stela 21
AD 798 9.18.8.3.9 BCM 3
AD 799 9.18.9.5.9 BCM 4
AD 800 9.18.10.0.0 Altar 23 Stela 11
AD 810 9.19.0.0.0 9 Ajaw Altar 22 Stelae 8, 9, 18
AD 820 9.19.10.0.0 Altars 12, 13 Stela 19
AD 830 10.0.0.0.0 7 Ajaw Altar 16
AD 849 10.1.0.0.0 5 Ajaw Altars 18, 10 Stela 17
AD 859 10.1.10.0.0 1 Ajaw Stela 10

Monuments

Stela 1


Stela 2


Stela 3


Stela 4


Stela 5


Stela 6


Stela 7


Stela 8


Stela 9


Stela 10


Stela 11


Stela 12


Stela 13


Stela 14


Stela 15


Stela 16


Stela 17


Stela 18


Stela 19


Stela 20


Stela 21


Stela 22


Stela 23


Stela 24


Altar 1


Altar 2


Altar 3


Altar 4


Altar 5


Altar 6


Altar 7


Altars 8 and 9


Altar 10


Altar 11


Altar 12


Altar 13


Altar 14


Altar 15


Altar 16


Altar 17


Altar 18


Altar 19


Altar 21


Altar 22


Altar 23


Altar 24


Ballcourt Markers 1 and 2


Ballcourt Marker 3


Ballcourt Marker 4

Timeline

1200 BC – 250 AD Preclassic Small sedentary villages followed by development of monumentality and larger centers.

c. 600–900 BC Earliest archaeologically known habitation at Caracol proper

c. AD 70 Structure A6-1st, "Temple of the Wooden Lintel," constructed and consecrated; locus B34 burial; full Maya ritual complex present at Caracol.

c. AD 150 Elaborate burial placed in Structure B34 locus.

AD 250–900 Classic "Peak" of Maya civilization; pyramids, tombs, inscriptions, widespread trade; by AD 800 Maya "collapse" is underway.

c. AD 330 Teotihuacan style cremation with three individuals (S.D. C117F-1) placed in the plaza of the Northeast Acropolis [15]

AD 331 (8.14.13.10.4) Caracol Royal dynasty "officially" founded by Te’ K’ab Chaak (Tree Branch Rain God), Caracol’s dynastic progenitor

AD 400 (8.18.4.4.14) Stela 20 dedicated

c. AD 480 Unknown ruler's tomb placed in Structure D16.

AD 484 (9.2.9.0.16) Accession of Lord Yajaw Te’ K’inich I

AD 495 (9.3.0.0.0) Altar 4 dedicated

AD 504 (9.3.10.0.0) Altar 19 dedicated

AD 514 (9.4.0.0.0) Altar 7 and Stela 13 dedicated

AD 531 (9.4.16.13.3) Accession of K’an I

AD 534 (9.5.0.0.0) Dedication of Altars 3 (?) and 14, and Stela 13

AD 537 Use of initial tomb in Structure B20-3rd.

AD 553 (9.5.19.1.2) Accession of Caracol Ruler Lord Water (Yajaw Te’ K’inich II)

AD 554 (9.6.0.0.0) Altar 5 and Stela 14 dedicated

AD 556 (9.6.5.1.11) Tikal exacted a ch’ak (axe) event on Caracol; Tikal wins upper hand in this first war event at Caracol.

AD 562 (9.6.8.4.2) "Star-War" defeat of Tikal Lord Wak Chan K’awiil by Caracol

AD 566 Batz Ek born

AD 573 (9.7.0.0.0) Dedication of Altars 6, 24 and Stela 15

AD 575 (9.7.2.0.3) Birth of Knot Ahau

AD 577 One of three tombs in Structure B20-2nd used.

AD 577 or 582 Front tomb in Structure A34 consecrated

AD 583 (9.7.10.0.0) Stela 4 dedicated

AD 588 (9.7.14.10.8) Birth of Caracol Ruler Kan II.

AD 593 (9.8.0.0.0) Altar 1 and Stela 1 erected

AD 599 (9.8.5.16.12) Accession of Caracol Lord Knot Ahau.

AD 603 (9.8.10.0.0) Stela 6 dedicated

AD 613 (9.9.0.0.0) Altars 15 and 11, and Stela 5 dedicated

AD 614 Tomb in Structure L3-2nd covered.

AD 618 (9.9.4.16.2) Accession of Kan II.

AD 626 and 628 (9.9.13.4.4) Naranjo defeated in two Hubi war events; major expansion of Caracol follows.

AD 631 (9.9.18.16.3) Caracol wins Star-War against Naranjo;[8] texts erected at Naranjo celebrating Caracol lords

AD 633 (9.10.0.0.0) Altar 21 and Stela 7 dedicated

AD 634 Woman's tomb in Structure B19-2nd closed.

AD 652 (9.11.0.0.0) Stela 3 dedicated

AD 658 (9.11.5.15.9) Death of Kan II. Accession of Lord Smoke Skull (K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich II) who is only known from monuments at La Rejolla

AD 680 (9.12.7.14.1) Naranjo gains independence in Star-War event.

AD 696 Tomb in Structure A3-1st covered

AD 702 (9.13.10.0.0) Stela 21 erected; Capture of Ixkun lord noted Beginning of Caracol’s epigraphic hiatus (AD 702–798)

AD 790 (9.18.0.0.0) Warfare event credited to K’inich Joy K'awil on Stela 11 (erected AD 800), indicating the capture of eight captives (two of which are shown on Altar 23, and another on Stela 17); potential erection date for Altar 3 (?)

AD 799 (9.18.9.5.9) Accession of Lord K’inich Joy K’awiil

AD 800 (9.18.10.0.0) Erection of Stela 11 and Altar 23 Capture of 3 prisoners, including Ucanal lord, by Caracol Ruler Joy K'awiil

AD 804 (9.18.13.10.19) Potential accession of K’inich Toobil Yopaat

AD 810 (9.19.0.0.0) Stelae 8, 9, and 18 erected

AD 820 (9.19.10.0.0) Altars 12, 13, and Stela 19 dedicated Ch’ak event against k’ul mutul (probably Tikal) recorded on Altar 12

AD 830 (10.0.0.0.0) Altar 16 dedicated

AD 849 (10.1.0.0.0) Altar 18 and Stela 17 dedicated

AD 859 (10.1.10.0.0) Last recorded date at Caracol on Stela 10.

AD 900-1500 Caracol center abandoned entering the Postclassic. Most major sites are located away from Classic Period centers, but near water. Sites are generally characterized by low-lying as opposed to monumental architecture.

c. AD 1050 Last use of Caracol Structure A6; Caracol totally abandoned.

AD 1500–present "Historic" era begins when Europeans arrive in the New World; most native Maya populations decimated by disease; others disrupted by warfare and forced population movements. Native populations still comprise over 50% of Guatemala and Yucatán.

Lords of Caracol

Note that this list is not continuous, as the epigraphic record is incomplete.

The southern acropolis.

Te’ K’ab Chaak (Tree Branch Rain God) is the dynastic progenitor of Caracol, yet is only known from two Late Classic back dated texts. One places him at AD 331, and the second at AD 349.[6]

K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich I (also known as Ruler I, or Smoking Skull I) appears on the 6th century genealogical text of Stela 16, but his place in the line of reigning lords is unknown.[6] His reign has been estimated to be circa AD 470. He may have been the father of Yajaw Te’ K’inich I.

Yajaw Te’ K’inich I acceded to rulership in AD 484 (9.2.9.0.16), and is known from Stela 13, which records his celebration of the 4th K’atun in AD 514.[6] His monuments include Stela 13 and Altar 4. He is the father of K’an I.

K'an I (also known as Ruler II) is the son of Yajaw Te’ K’inich I, and acceded his father in AD 531 – 9.4.16.13.3.[6][19] Stela 15 text gives his parentage statement, and tells that his accession was overseen by a ‘higher authority,’ either another lord or a divine being. His monuments include Stela 16 (which includes his parentage statement) and Altar 14.

Yajaw Te' K'inich II (also known as Lord Water), son of K’an I and named after his grandfather, acceded to power in AD 553 - 9.5.19.1.2.[6] His monuments include Stelae 1, 4(?), 14, and Altars 1, 6, and 24. His first monument, Stela 14, records the K’atun ending in AD 554 (9.6.0.0.0). As told on Altar 21, Yajaw Te’ K’inich II’s accession takes place under the auspices of the Tikal Lord Wak Chan K’awiil.[6] He erected Stela 1 and Altar 1 to mark his last K’atun ending of 9.8.0.0.0, and four years later he is referenced as ‘seeing’ the 9.8.10.0.0 ending. He is mentioned in the fragmentary text on Stela 23.[19] In AD 562 – 9.6.8.4.2 he enacted the first recorded star war against Tikal and Lord Wak Chan K’awiil. h. Yajaw Te' K'inich II's two sons, Knot Ajaw and Kan II, rule after him.

Knot Ajaw, born in AD 575 (9.7.2.0.3), succeeded his father Yajaw Te’ K’inich II in AD 599.[6] Erected Stelae 5, 6, and 7 (?) to the west of Structure A13, as well as dedicated Altars 11(?) and 15. He was the half-brother of K’an II.

K’an II is described as the most successful Caracol ruler. Reigning for 40 years from AD 618 to 658, he expanded the causeway system and saw an increase in the site’s population.[6] Born as Sak Witzil Baah (“White First Hill”, or “White Gopher Hill”) in AD 588, he took his grandfather’s name at his accession. He was the half-brother of Knot Ajaw, and was thus always stressing his legitimacy by referencing his mother (who may be Batz’ Ek’). It is interesting that he never references the rule of his brother Knot Ajaw in any of his monuments, even those that describe his dynastic predecessors. He also seems to have developed diplomatic contacts with the Snake polity, with whom he coordinated the war with Naranjo, which began in 626, and ended with the defeat of Naranjo in 631.[6] His monuments include Stelae 3, 22, Altars 2, 7, 17,19, and 21, and potentially the Hieroglyphic Stairway and Panel 1 from Naranjo.

K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich II (also known as Smoking Skull II, or Ruler VI) succeeded K’an II in AD 658, but as he has no surviving parentage statements, we cannot be certain that he is K’an II’s son. His only monument appears at La Rejolla, and only two stucco texts from Caana (Structures B16-sub and B18).[6] One of these texts shows that in AD 680, Caracol was the victim of a star war from Naranjo (also called Naranjo’s war of Independence). Martin and Grube [6] suggest that this action drove K’ahk’ Ujol K’inich from Caracol, at which time he may have fled to La Rejolla 12 km to the northwest. The remainder of this text has not been excavated. This star war event seems to have launched Caracol’s epigraphic hiatus, which continues for 96 years, until AD 798.

Ruler VII reigned during the epigraphic hiatus, and erected only one stela (Stela 21) dated to AD 702 (9.13.10.0.0).[6] One candidate for this ruler comes from Naj Tunich, some 46 km to the south. In one of the cave’s chambers dated to AD 692 is a text referring to a Caracol elite named Tz’ayaj K’ajk’, who carries the emblem glyph, but not the k’inich ajaw prefix.

Tum Yohl K’inich (also called Ruler VIII) is as enigmatic as Ruler VII. He likewise appears in the Naj Tunich, and also lacks the k’inich ajaw prefix, leaving his royal status in question.[6] In this text, he performs a fire-bearing ritual under the supervision of a lord of Ixkun; an unnamed lord of Calakmul is also involved. All other appearances of his name occur in later retrospective texts like Altar 23, which lists him as a 3 K’atun lord, and the captor of two lords from Ucanal and Bital.

K’inich Joy K’awiil began a revival of the Caracol polity with his accession in AD 799 (9.18.9.5.9).[6] He commissioned the B-Group Ballcourt, the markers of which date back to the dynastic founder Te’ K’ab Chaak. Stela 11 shows Tum Yohl K’inich in an ambiguous relationship to Joy K’awiil, which may show that he is the latter’s father, or as suggested by Altar 23 potentially a relative in a high-ranking military position.

K’inich Toobil Yopaat’s (also known as Ruler X and XI) accession date is not certain, but he erected five (possibly six) monuments (**Stelae 18, 19, Altars 12, 13), and seems to have repaired relations with Ucanal. This new relationship is depicted on Altars 12 and 13, as well as on stucco text from Structure B18.[6]

K’an III is little known, and he erected three monuments.

Ruler XIII is the last known lord of Caracol, and erected only one monument: Stela 10. Stela 10 is a carved all glyphic monument which may commemorate the half-K’atun 10.1.10.0.0 (AD 859).[6]

Select architectural groups

A Group Plaza

Structure A1

Structure A2

Structure A3

Structure A5

Structure A6

Structure A8


Structure A10


A Group Ballcourt (Structures A11 and A12)


Structure A13


B Group Plaza
Caana (B14-B20, B36, B37)

Structure B18

Structure B19


Structures B8 and B9


Barrio (B21-B26)

Structure B21

Structure B25

Structure B26


Structure B28


The Northeast Acropolis (B30-B34)

Structure B30

Structure B31

Structure B32

Structure B33

Structure B34


C Group Plaza

Structure B59

Structure I20


Culebras Residential Group

Structure C20


South Acropolis

Structure D4

Structure D5

Structure D7

Structure D9

Structure D11

Structure D12

Structure D14

Structure D16

Structure D17

Structure D18


Structure F2


Alta/Baja Vista Residential Complex

Structure F33

Structure F36

Structure F39

Structure F41


Saraguate


Retiro


Ceiba

Other area sites

Other Maya sites within the Cayo district include Xunantunich, Cahal Pech,[31] and Chaa Creek.[32]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase, 1987 Investigations at the Classic Maya City of Caracol, Belize: 1985-1987. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Diane Chase and Arlen Chase 1995 Changing Perspectives on Caracol, Belize: Long-Term Archaeological Research and the Northeast Sector Settlement Program. Paper prepared for the 1st International Symposium of Maya Archaeology, San Ignacio, Cayo, Belize. May 29 - June 2, 1995
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2009 Interpreting the Maya “Collapse”: Continued Investigation of Residential Complexes in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2009 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2009.php, accessed November 20, 2011
  4. "History: Site Overview". Archived from the original on 1 April 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
  5. Kelly (1996, p.82)
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube 2008 Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens, 2nd edition. Thames and Hudson, London
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2008 What the Hieroglyphs Don’t Tell You: Archaeology and History at Caracol, Belize. Mayab 20:103–108
  8. 1 2 3 4 Diane Chase and Arlen Chase 2003 Texts and Contexts in Maya Warfare: A brief Consideration of Epigraphy and Archaeology at Caracol, Belize. In Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare, edited by M. K. Brown, and T. W. Stanton, pp. 171–188. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California
  9. 1 2 1998 Southeast Sector Settlement, A stucco Statue, and Substantial Survey: the Caracol 1997 Season. http://caracol.org/reports/1997.php, accessed November 20, 2011
  10. Mapping Ancient Civilization, in a Matter of Days, John Noble Wilford, IHT, 10 May 2010, accessed 11 May 2010
  11. Jack Roth 2005 Window into the Ancient World. Pegasus: UCF Alumni Life 11(6):20-25.
  12. Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2006 Trying to Understand the End: Continued Investigation of Small Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2006 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2006.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  13. Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2007 Late Classic Ritual Variation in a Maya Community: Continued Investigation of Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2007 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2007.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  14. 1 2 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2008 Household Composition and Ritual Patterning: Continued Investigation of Residential Groups near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2008 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/2008.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2010 Household Patterning, the “Collapse,” and LiDAR Ground-Checks: Continued Investigation in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2010 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2010.pdf, accessed November 20, 2011.
  16. Diane Chase and Arlen Chase 1994 Studies in the Archaeology of Caracol, Belize (editors). Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco
  17. Arthur Demarest 2004 Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Diane Chase and Arlen Chase 2003 Texts and Contexts in Maya Warfare: A brief Consideration of Epigraphy and Archaeology at Caracol, Belize. In Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare, edited by M. K. Brown, and T. W. Stanton, pp. 171–188. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Nikolai Grube 1994 Epigraphic Research at Caracol, Belize. In Studies in the Archaeology of Caracol, Belize, edited by Diane Z. Chase and Arlen F. Chase. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco, California
  20. 1 2 Linda Schele, David Freidel 1990 A Forrest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow and Co. New York.
  21. Diane Chase and Arlen Chase 1996 Maya Multiples: Individuals, Entries, and Tombs in Structure A34 of Caracol, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 7:61-79.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Carl P. Beetz, Linton Satterthwaite 1981 The Monuments and Inscriptions of Caracol, Belize. The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
  23. Patsy Holden 2009 Ballcourt Iconography at Caracol, Belize. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Orlando.
  24. Cristophe Helmke, Harri Kettunen, and Stanley Guenter 2006 Comments on the Hieroglyphic Texts of the B-Group Ballcourt Markers at Caracol, Belize. Wayeb Notes 23:1-27.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2001 Continued Investigation into Epicentral Palaces: Report of the 2001 Field Season at Caracol, Belize. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-11-05. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  26. 1 2 3 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2005 Searching for Caracol’s Last Urbanites: Continued Investigation of Small Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2005 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2005.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  27. 1 2 3 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 1999 Heart and Soul: A Plaza and Settlement Research at Caracol, Belize: A Report of the 1999 Field Season. http://caracol.org/reports/199.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 1998b Termini, Test-Pits, and Associated “Greenery:” Report of the 1998 Field Season at Caracol, Belize. http://caracol.org/reports/1998.php, accessed November 20, 2011.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2002 Continued Investigation of Caracol’s Social Organization: Report of the Spring 2002 Field Season at Caracol, Belize. http://caracol.org/reports/2002.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Arlen Chase and Diane Chase 2003 At Home in the South: Investigations in the Vicinity of Caracol’s South Acropolis: 2003 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2003.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
  31. Awe et al. (1990)
  32. C.Michael Hogan, Chaa Creek, Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham, 2007

References

Awe, Jaime; Cassandra Bill; Mark Campbell; David Cheetham (1990). "Early Middle Formative Occupation in the Central Maya Lowlands: Recent Evidence from Cahal Pech, Belize" (PDF online reproduction). Papers from the Institute of Archaeology. London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology. 1: 1–5. ISSN 0965-9315. OCLC 231692266. 
Beetz, Carl P.; Linton Satterthwaite (1981). The Monuments and Inscriptions of Caracol, Belize. University Museum monographs, no. 45. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. ISBN 0-934718-41-5. OCLC 60071978. 
Arlen F. Chase, Diane Z. Chase
1987 Investigations at the Classic Maya City of Caracol, Belize: 1985-1987. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.
1998a Southeast Sector Settlement, A stucco Statue, and Substantial Survey: the Caracol 1997 Season. http://caracol.org/reports/1997.php, accessed November 20, 2011.
1998b Termini, Test-Pits, and Associated “Greenery:” Report of the 1998 Field Season at Caracol, Belize. http://caracol.org/reports/1998.php, accessed November 20, 2011.
1999 Heart and Soul: A Plaza and Settlement Research at Caracol, Belize: A Report of the 1999 Field Season. http://caracol.org/reports/199.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2000 Epicentral Ring Settlement: Report of the Spring 2000 Field Season at Caracol, Belize. http://caracol.org/reports/2000.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2003 At Home in the South: Investigations in the Vicinity of Caracol’s South Acropolis: 2003 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2003.php, accessed October 17, 2011.

2004 Searching for Support Staff and Kitchens: Continued Investigation of Small Structures in Caracol’s Epicenter: 2004 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2004.php, accessed October 17, 2011.

2005 Searching for Caracol’s Last Urbanites: Continued Investigation of Small Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: :2005 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2005.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2006 Trying to Understand the End: Continued Investigation of Small Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2006 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2006.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2007 Late Classic Ritual Variation in a Maya Community: Continued Investigation of Structures in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2007 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2007.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2008a What the Hieroglyphs Don’t Tell You: Archaeology and History at Caracol, Belize. Mayab 20:103–108
2008b Household Composition and Ritual Patterning: Continued Investigation of Residential Groups near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2008 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/2008.php, accessed October 17, 2011.
2009 Interpreting the Maya “Collapse”: Continued Investigation of Residential Complexes in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2009 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2009.php, accessed November 20, 2011.
2010 Household Patterning, the “Collapse,” and LiDAR Ground-Checks: Continued Investigation in and near Caracol’s Epicenter: 2010 Field Report of the Caracol Archaeological Project. http://caracol.org/reports/2010.pdf, accessed November 20, 2011.
Diane Z. Chase, Arlen F. Chase
1994 Studies in the Archaeology of Caracol, Belize (editors). Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.
1995 Changing Perspectives on Caracol, Belize: Long-Term Archaeological Research and the Northeast Sector Settlement Program. Paper prepared for the 1st International Symposium of Maya Archaeology, San Ignacio, Cayo, Belize. May 29 - June 2, 1995.
1996 Maya Multiples: Individuals, Entries, and Tombs in Structure A34 of Caracol, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 7:61-79.
2003 Texts and Contexts in Maya Warfare: A brief Consideration of Epigraphy and Archaeology at Caracol, Belize. In Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare, edited by M. K. Brown, and T. W. Stanton, pp. 171–188. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California.
Nikolai Grube
1994 Epigraphic Research at Caracol, Belize. In Studies in the Archaeology of Caracol, Belize, edited by Diane Z. Chase and Arlen F. Chase. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco, California.
Cristophe Helmke, Harri Kettunen, and Stanley Guenter
2006 Comments on the Hieroglyphic Texts of the B-Group Ballcourt Markers at Caracol, Belize. Wayeb Notes 23:1-27.
Patsy Holden
2009 Ballcourt Iconography at Caracol, Belize. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Orlando.
Kelly, Joyce (1996). An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2858-5. OCLC 34658843. 
Simon Martin, Nikolai Grube
2008 Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens, 2nd edition. Thames and Hudson, London.
Peter Mathews
1985 Maya Early Classic Monuments and Inscriptions. In A consideration of the Early Classic Period in the Maya Lowlands, edited by Gordon Willey and Peter Mathews. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, Albany, New York.
Jack Roth
2005 Window into the Ancient World. Pegasus: UCF Alumni Life 11(6):20-25.
Schele, Linda; David Freidel (1990). A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya (Reprint ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-688-11204-8. OCLC 145324300. 
Sharer, Robert J. (1994). The Ancient Maya (5th, fully revised ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2130-0. OCLC 28067148. 
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