John II of Portugal

John II
King of Portugal and the Algarves
Reign	28 August 1481 – 25 October 1495
Acclamation	31 August 1481
Predecessor	Afonso V
Successor	Manuel I
Reign	11–15 November 1477
Acclamation	11 November 1477
Predecessor	Afonso V
Successor	Afonso V
Born	3 March 1455 Castle of São Jorge, Portugal
Died	25 October 1495 (aged 40) Alvor, Algarve
Burial	Monastery of Batalha
Spouse	Eleanor of Viseu
Issue among others...	Afonso, Prince of Portugal
Dynasty	Aviz
Father	Afonso V of Portugal
Mother	Isabella of Coimbra
Religion	Roman Catholicism

John II (Portuguese: João II,^[1] Portuguese pronunciation: [ʒuˈɐ̃w̃]; 3 March 1455 – 25 October 1495), the Perfect Prince (Portuguese: o Príncipe Perfeito), was the king of Portugal and the Algarves in 1477/1481–1495.

He is known for re-establishing the power of the Portuguese throne, reinvigorating the Portuguese economy, and renewing his country's exploration of Africa and the Orient.

Early life

Born in Lisbon, the son of King Afonso V of Portugal by his wife, Isabella of Coimbra, John II succeeded his father as ruler of Portugal in 1477, when the king retired to a monastery, but only became king in 1481, after the death of his father and predecessor.

As a prince, John II accompanied his father in the campaigns in northern Africa and was made a knight after the victory in the Conquest of Arzila in 1471. In 1473, he married Leonor of Viseu, an infanta of Portugal and his first cousin.

Even at a young age, John was not popular among the peers of the kingdom since he was immune to external influence and appeared to despise intrigue. The nobles (including particularly Ferdinand II, the Duke of Braganza) were afraid of his future policies as king.

Consolidation of power

King John II

After his official accession to the throne in 1481, John II took a series of measures to curtail the power of the Portuguese aristocracy and concentrate power in himself. As one of example of the measure he took, he deprived the nobles of their right to administer justice on their estates.^[2] Immediately, the nobles started to conspire. Letters of complaint and pleas to intervene were exchanged between the Duke of Braganza and Queen Isabella I of Castile.

King John took the precaution of renegotiating the "Tercerias de Moura" agreement to insure that his son Afonso was living safely back at court before he would move against Braganza, the most powerful noble in the realm (the original agreement called for Afonso to live in Moura, Portugal, with his intended Spanish bride, Isabella, Princess of Asturias, as children before their marriage).^[3] In 1483, additional correspondence was intercepted by royal spies. The House of Braganza was outlawed, their lands confiscated and the duke executed in Évora. His widow, Isabella of Viseu, John's cousin and sister-in-law, fled with her children to Castile.^[4]

In the following year, the Duke of Viseu, John's cousin and brother-in-law, was summoned to the palace and stabbed to death by the king himself for suspicion of a new conspiracy. Many other people were executed, murdered, or exiled to Castile, including the Bishop of Évora, who was poisoned in prison.^[2] Following the crackdown, no one in the country dared to defy the king and John saw no further conspiracies during his reign. A great confiscation of estates followed and enriched the crown, which now became the dominant power of the realm.

Economy

Facing a bankrupt kingdom, John II showed the initiative to solve the situation by creating a regime in which a Council of Scholars took a vital role.^[4] The king conducted a search of the population and selected members for the Council on the basis of their abilities, talents and credentials. John's exploration policies (see below) also paid great dividends. Such was the profit coming from John II's investments in the overseas explorations and expansion that the Portuguese currency had become the soundest in Europe. The kingdom could finally collect taxes for its own use rather than to pay debts, mainly thanks to its main gold source at that time, the coast of Guinea.

Exploration

King John II in Chronica d'El-Rei D. João II; Rui de Pina, c. 1497-1504.

John II famously restored the policies of Atlantic exploration, reviving the work of his great-uncle, Henry the Navigator. The Portuguese explorations were his main priority in government. Portuguese explorers pushed south along the known coast of Africa with the purpose of discovering the maritime route to India and breaking into the spice trade. During his reign, the following (Elmina).achievements were realized:

• 1482 – Foundation of the coastal fortress and trade post of São Jorge da Mina
• 1484 – Discovery of the Congo River by Diogo Cão.
• 1488 – Discovery and passage of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias in Mossel Bay.^[5]
• 1493 – Start of the settlement of the São Tomé and Príncipe islands by Álvaro Caminha.
• Funding of land expeditions by Afonso de Paiva and Pêro da Covilhã to India and Ethiopia in search of Prester John land.

The true extent of Portuguese explorations has been the subject of academic debate. According to one theory, some navigations were kept secret for fear of competition by neighbouring Castile. The archives of this period were mainly destroyed in the fire after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, and what was not destroyed during the earthquake was either stolen or destroyed during the Peninsular War or otherwise lost.^[6][7][8]

Conflict with Castile

King John II

When Columbus returned from his first voyage early in 1493, he thought of first stopping in Lisbon to claim his victory in front of King John II. King John II's only response to this was that under the Treaty of Alcáçovas previously signed with Spain, Columbus's discoveries lay within Portugal's sphere of influence. Before Columbus even reached Isabella I of Castile, John II had already sent a letter to them threatening to send a fleet to claim it for Portugal. Spain quickly hastened to the negotiating table, which took place in a small Spanish town named Tordesillas. A papal representative was present to act as mediator. The result of this meeting would be the famous Treaty of Tordesillas, which sought to divide all newly discovered lands in the New World between Spain and Portugal.

The division of the world, however, was not the main issue that poisoned relations between the Iberian kingdoms. Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon had several daughters, but only one feeble male heir: John, Prince of Asturias. The oldest daughter, Isabella of Aragon, had been married to Afonso, Prince of Portugal, since childhood. Afonso was John II's only son and beloved by the king. If Ferdinand died without male heir, as was probable, Afonso would be the heir not only to the throne of Portugal, but also to those of Castile and Aragon. This threat to Castilian and Aragonese independence was very real, and the Catholic Monarchs tried every diplomatic trick to dissolve the wedding. Finally, in 1491, Afonso died in mysterious circumstances: a fall from a horse during a ride in the margin of the Tagus river. The influence of Isabella and Ferdinand in this accident was never proved, but the prince was an excellent rider, his Castilian valet fled, never to be seen again, and after this, Isabella, the heiress, was no longer married to Castile's enemy. John tried without success until the end of his life to legitimise Jorge, Duke of Coimbra, his illegitimate son.

Legacy

John II died at Alvor at age 40 without legitimate children. He was succeeded by his first cousin Manuel I.

The nickname the Perfect Prince is a posthumous appellation that is intended to refer to Niccolò Machiavelli's work The Prince. John II is considered to have lived his life exactly according to the writer's idea of a perfect prince. Nevertheless, he was admired as one of the greatest European monarchs of his time. Isabella I of Castile usually referred to him as El Hombre (The Man).^[9]

The Italian scholar Poliziano wrote a letter to John II that paid him a profound homage:

to render you thanks on behalf of all who belong to this century, which now favours of your quasi-divine merits, now boldly competing with ancient centuries and all Antiquity.

Indeed, Poliziano considered his achievements to be more meritorious than those of Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar. He offered to write an epic work giving an account of John II accomplishments in navigation and conquests. The king replied in a positive manner in a letter of 23 October 1491, but delayed the commission. ^[10]

In popular culture

• In the TV series Christopher Columbus (1985) he is played by Max von Sydow.
• In the film Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992) he is played by Mathieu Carrière.
• He appears in Civilization IV (as João II), leading the Portuguese.

Marriage and descendants

Name	Birth	Death	Notes
By Leonor of Viseu (2 May 1458 – 17 November 1525; married in January 1471)
Infante Afonso	18 May 1475	13 July 1491	Prince of Portugal. Died in a horse riding accident. Because of the premature death of the prince the throne was inherited by Manuel of Viseu, Duke of Beja, son of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, who reigned as Manuel I, 14th King of Portugal.
Infante João (John)	2 March 1482
By Ana de Mendonça (c. 1460-?)
Jorge	21 August 1481	22 July 1550	Natural son known as Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra.
By Brites Anes (c. 1460-?)
Brites Anes de Santarém	c. 1485	?	Natural daughter.

Ancestry

Ancestors of John II of Portugal

16. Peter I of Portugal               8. John I of Portugal                       17. Teresa Lourenço               4. Edward I of Portugal                             18. John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster               9. Philippa of Lancaster                       19. Blanche of Lancaster               2. Afonso V of Portugal                                   20. John I of Castile               10. Ferdinand I of Aragon                       21. Eleanor of Aragon               5. Eleanor of Aragon                             22. Sancho Alfonso, 1st Count of Alburquerque               11. Eleanor of Alburquerque                       23. Infanta Beatrice of Portugal               1. John II of Portugal                                         24. Peter I of Portugal               12. John I of Portugal                       25. Teresa Lourenço               6. Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra                             26. John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster               13. Philippa of Lancaster                       27. Blanche of Lancaster               3. Isabella of Coimbra                                   28. Peter II, Count of Urgell               14. James II, Count of Urgell                       29. Margherita Palaiologue of Montferrat               7. Isabella of Urgell                             30. Peter IV of Aragon               15. Isabella of Aragon                       31. Sibila of Fortia

Notes

1. Rendered as Joam in Archaic Portuguese
2. "Prestage, Edgar. "Portugal." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 30 Jul. 2014". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
3. ''A History of Portugal'', p. 213, CUP Archives. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
4. Busk, M.M., ''The History of Spain and Portugal from B.C. 1000 to A.D. 1814'', p. 80, Baldwin and Cradock, 1833. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
5. Disney, A.R. (2009) A History of Portugal and the Portugal Empire, Volume 2: The Portuguese Empire: 38–39; Cambridge University Press: New York
6. Charles E. Nowell (1936). "The Discovery of Brazil: Accidental or Intentional?". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 16 (3): 311–338. doi:10.2307/2507557. JSTOR 2507557.
7. J. Baltalha-Reis (1897). "The Supposed Discovery of South America before 1488, and Critical Methods of the Historians of Geographical Discovery". The Geographical Journal. 9 (2): 185–210. JSTOR 1773506.
8. Ilaria Luzzana Caraci (1988). Columbus and the Portuguese Voyages in the Columbian Sources. UC Biblioteca Geral 1. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
9. McKendrick, Melveena (2000). Playing the king: Lope de Vega and the limits of conformity. Tamesis. p. 55. ISBN 9781855660694. His cousin, Isabella of Castille, herself no weakling, admiringly dubbed him 'el Hombre', for all the world like some early spaghetti-western hero.
10. Manuel Bernardes Branco (1879). Portugal e os Estrangeiros. Lisboa: Livraria de A.M.Pereira. pp. 415–417. (Translation of the latin by Teófilo Braga) "render-vos graças em nome de todos quantos pertencemos a este século, o qual agora, por favor dos vossos méritos quasi-divinos, ousa já denodadamente competir com os vetustos séculos e com toda a antiguidade."

External links

• D. John II (the perfect prince)

References

• Page, Martin The First Global Village
• Boxer, Charles R. From Lisbon to Goa, 1500–1750 (1991)
• Boxer, Charles R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 (1969)
• Mira, Manuel S. Forgotten Portuguese: The Melungeons and the Portuguese Making of America (1998)
• Duffy, James Portuguese Africa (1968)
• Bodian, Mirian Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation (1997)