Radionuclide

A radionuclide (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or radioactive isotope) is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. This excess energy can be either emitted from the nucleus as gamma radiation, or create and emit from the nucleus a new particle (alpha particle or beta particle), or transfer this excess energy to one of its electrons, causing that electron to be ejected as a conversion electron. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo radioactive decay.^[1] These emissions constitute ionizing radiation. The unstable nucleus is more stable following the emission, but will sometimes undergo further decay. Radioactive decay is a random process at the level of single atoms: it is impossible to predict when one particular atom will decay.^[2][3][4][5] However, for a collection of atoms of a single element the decay rate, and thus the half-life (t_1/2) for that collection can be calculated from their measured decay constants. The range of the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known limits and span a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude.

Radionuclides occur naturally and are artificially produced in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators. There are about 650 radionuclides with half-lives longer than 60 minutes (see list of nuclides). Of these, 34 are primordial radionuclides that existed before the creation of the solar system, and there are another 50 radionuclides detectable in nature that are daughters of these, or are produced naturally on Earth by cosmic radiation. More than 2400 radionuclides have half-lives less than 60 minutes. Most of those are only produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. For comparison, there are about 254 stable nuclides.

All chemical elements have radionuclides. Even the lightest element, hydrogen, has a well-known radionuclide, tritium. Elements heavier than lead, and the elements technetium and promethium, exist only as radionuclides.

Unplanned exposure to radionuclides generally has a harmful effect on living organisms including humans, although low levels of exposure occur naturally without harm. The degree of harm will depend on the nature and extent of the radiation produced, the amount and nature of exposure (close contact, inhalation or ingestion), and the biochemical properties of the element; with increased risk of cancer the most usual consequence. However, radionuclides with suitable properties are used in nuclear medicine for both diagnosis and treatment. An imaging tracer made with radionuclides is called a radioactive tracer. A pharmaceutical drug made with radionuclides is called a radiopharmaceutical.

Origin

Natural

On Earth, naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories: primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides, and cosmogenic radionuclides.

• Radionuclides are produced in stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova explosions along with stable nuclides. Most decay quickly but can still be observed astronomically and can play a part in understanding astronomic processes. Primordial radionuclides, such as uranium and thorium, exist in the present time because their half-lives are so long (>80 million years) they have not yet completely decayed. Some radionuclides have half-lives so long (many times the age of the universe) that decay has only recently been detected, and for most practical purposes they can be considered stable, most notably bismuth-209: detection of this decay meant that bismuth was no longer considered stable. It is possible decay may be observed in other nuclides adding to this list of primordial radionuclides.
• Secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides. They arise in the decay chain of the primordial isotopes thorium-232, uranium-238 and uranium-235. Examples include the natural isotopes of polonium and radium.
• Cosmogenic isotopes, such as carbon-14, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays.^[6]

Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, including the two shortest-lived primordial nuclides and all cosmogenic nuclides. Secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare. Thus polonium can be found in uranium ores at about 0.1 mg per metric ton (1 part in 10¹⁰),.^[7][8] Further radionunclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions.

Nuclear fission

Radionuclides are produced as an unavoidable result of nuclear fission and thermonuclear explosions. The process of nuclear fission creates a wide range of fission products, most of which are radionuclides. Further radionuclides can be created from irradiation of the nuclear fuel (creating a range of actinides) and of the surrounding structures, yielding activation products. This complex mixture of radionuclides with different chemistries and radioactivity makes handling nuclear waste and dealing with nuclear fallout particularly problematic.

Synthetic

Synthetic radionuclides are deliberately synthesised using nuclear reactors, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators:

• As well as being extracted from nuclear waste, radioisotopes can be produced deliberately with nuclear reactors, exploiting the high flux of neutrons present. These neutrons activate elements placed within the reactor. A typical product from a nuclear reactor is iridium-192. The elements that have a large propensity to take up the neutrons in the reactor are said to have a high neutron cross-section.
• Particle accelerators such as cyclotrons accelerate particles to bombard a target to produce radionuclides. Cyclotrons accelerate protons at a target to produce positron-emitting radionuclides, e.g. fluorine-18.
• Radionuclide generators contain a parent radionuclide that decays to produce a radioactive daughter. The parent is usually produced in a nuclear reactor. A typical example is the technetium-99m generator used in nuclear medicine. The parent produced in the reactor is molybdenum-99.

Uses

Radionuclides are used in two major ways: either for their radiation alone (irradiation, nuclear batteries) or for the combination of chemical properties and their radiation (tracers, biopharmaceuticals).

• In biology, radionuclides of carbon can serve as radioactive tracers because they are chemically very similar to the nonradioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and ecological processes treat them in a nearly identical way. One can then examine the result with a radiation detector, such as a Geiger counter, to determine where the provided atoms were incorporated. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in which the carbon dioxide contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that incorporate atmospheric carbon would be radioactive. Radionuclides can be used to monitor processes such as DNA replication or amino acid transport.
• In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic information about internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs, including the human brain.^[9][10][11] This is used in some forms of tomography: single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography (PET) scanning and Cherenkov luminescence imaging. Radioisotopes are also a method of treatment in hemopoietic forms of tumors; the success for treatment of solid tumors has been limited. More powerful gamma sources sterilise syringes and other medical equipment.
• In food preservation, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after harvesting, to kill parasites and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and vegetables.
• In industry, and in mining, radionuclides are used to examine welds, to detect leaks, to study the rate of wear, erosion and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a wide range of minerals and fuels.
• In spacecraft and elsewhere, radionuclides are used to provide power and heat, notably through radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs).
• In astronomy and cosmology radionuclides play a role in understading stellar and planetary process.
• In particle physics, radionuclides help discover new physics (physics beyond the Standard Model) by measuring the energy and momentum of their beta decay products.^[12]
• In ecology, radionuclides are used to trace and analyze pollutants, to study the movement of surface water, and to measure water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as the flow rates of streams and rivers.
• In geology, archaeology, and paleontology, natural radionuclides are used to measure ages of rocks, minerals, and fossil materials.

Examples

The following table lists properties of selected radionuclides illustrating the range of properties and uses.

Isotope	Z	N	half life	DM	DE keV	Mode of formation	Comments
Tritium (^3H)	1	2	12.3 y	β^−	19	Cosmogenic	lightest radionuclide, used in artificial nuclear fusion, also used for radioluminescence and as oceanic transient tracer. Synthesized from neutron bombardment of lithium-6 or deuterium
Beryllium-10	4	6	1,387,000 y	β^−	556	Cosmogenic	used to examine soil erosion, soil formation from regolith, and the age of ice cores
Carbon-14	6	8	5,700 y	β^−	156	Cosmogenic	used for radiocarbon dating
Fluorine-18	9	9	110 min	β^+,EC	633/1655	Cosmogenic	positron source, synthesised for use as a medical radiotracer in PET scans.
Aluminium-26	13	13	717,000 y	β^+,EC	4004	Cosmogenic	exposure dating of rocks, sediment
Chlorine-36	17	19	301,000 y	β^−,EC	709	Cosmogenic	exposure dating of rocks, groundwater tracer
Potassium-40	19	21	1.24×10^9 y	β^−,EC	1330 /1505	Primordial	used for potassium-argon dating, source of atmospheric argon, source of radiogenic heat, largest source of natural radioactivity
Calcium-41	20	21	102,000 y	EC		Cosmogenic	exposure dating of carbonate rocks
Cobalt-60	27	33	5.3 y	β^−	2824	Synthetic	produces high energy gamma rays, used for radiotherapy, equipment sterilisation, food irradiation
Strontium-90	38	52	28.8 y	β^−	546	Fission product	medium-lived fission product; probably most dangerous component of nuclear fallout
Technetium-99	43	56	210,000 y	β^−	294	Fission product	commonest isotope of the lightest unstable element, most significant of long-lived fission products
Technetium-99m	43	56	6 hr	γ,IC	141	Synthetic	most commonly used medical radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer
Iodine-129	53	76	15,700,000 y	β^−	194	Cosmogenic	longest lived fission product; groundwater tracer
Iodine-131	53	78	8 d	β^−	971	Fission product	most significant short term health hazard from nuclear fission, used in nuclear medicine, industrial tracer
Xenon-135	54	81	9.1 h	β^−	1160	Fission Product	strongest known "nuclear poison" (neutron-absorber), with a major effect on nuclear reactor operation.
Caesium-137	55	82	30.2 y	β^−	1176	Fission Product	other major medium-lived fission product of concern
Bismuth-209	83	126	1.9×10^19y	α	3137	Primordial	long considered stable, decay only detected in 2003
Polonium-210	84	126	138 d	α	5307	Decay Product	Highly toxic, used in poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
Radon-222	86	136	3.8d	α	5590	Decay Product	gas, responsible for the majority of public exposure to ionizing radiation, second most frequent cause of lung cancer
Thorium-232	90	142	1.4×10^10 y	α	4083	Primordial	basis of thorium fuel cycle
Uranium-235	92	143	7×10^8y	α	4679	Primordial	fissile, main nuclear fuel
Uranium-238	92	146	4.5×10^9 y	α	4267	Primordial	Main Uranium isotope
Plutonium-238	94	144	87.7 y	α	5593	Synthetic	used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and radioisotope heater units as an energy source for spacecraft
Plutonium-239	94	145	24110 y	α	5245	Synthetic	used for most modern nuclear weapons
Americium-241	95	146	432 y	α	5486	Synthetic	used in household smoke detectors as an ionising agent
Californium-252	98	155	2.64 y	α/SF	6217	Synthetic	undergoes spontaneous fission (3% of decays), making in a powerful neutron source, used as a reactor initiator and for detection devices

Key: Z = no of protons; N = no of Neutrons; DM = Decay Mode; DE = Decay Energy; EC = Electron Capture

Americium-241

Americium-241 container in a smoke detector.

Americium-241 capsule as found in smoke detector. The circle of darker metal in the center is americium-241; the surrounding casing is aluminium.

Most household smoke detectors contain americium produced in nuclear reactors. The radioisotope used is americium-241. The element americium is created by bombarding plutonium with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Its isotope americium-241 decays by emitting alpha particles and gamma radiation to become neptunium-237. Most common household smoke detectors use a very small quantity of ²⁴¹Am (about 0.29 micrograms per smoke detector) in the form of americium dioxide. Smoke detectors use ²⁴¹Am since the alpha particles it emits collide with oxygen and nitrogen particles in the air. This occurs in the detector's ionization chamber where it produces charged particles or ions. Then, these charged particles are collected by a small electric voltage that will create an electric current that will pass between two electrodes. Then, the ions that are flowing between the electrodes will be neutralized when coming in contact with smoke, thereby decreasing the electric current between the electrodes, which will activate the detector's alarm.^[13][14]

Gadolinium-153

The ¹⁵³Gd isotope is used in X-ray fluorescence and osteoporosis screening. It is a gamma-emitter with an 8-month half-life, making it easier to use for medical purposes. In nuclear medicine, it serves to calibrate the equipment needed like single-photon emission computed tomography systems (SPECT) to make x-rays. It ensures that the machines work correctly to produce images of radioisotope distribution inside the patient. This isotope is produced in a nuclear reactor from europium or enriched gadolinium.^[15] It can also detect the loss of calcium in the hip and back bones, allowing the ability to diagnose osteoporosis.^[16]

Impacts on organisms

Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by radiation poisoning. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and "can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to radiation burns and acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure."^[17]

Summary table for classes of nuclides, "stable" and radioactive

Following is a summary table for the total list of nuclides with half-lives greater than one hour. Ninety of these 905 nuclides are theoretically stable, except to proton-decay (which has never been observed). About 254 nuclides have never been observed to decay, and are classically considered stable.

The remaining 650 radionuclides have half-lives longer than 1 hour, and are well-characterized (see list of nuclides for a complete tabulation). They include 28 nuclides with measured half-lives longer than the estimated age of the universe (13.8 billion years^[18]), and another 6 nuclides with half-lives long enough (> 80 million years) that they are radioactive primordial nuclides, and may be detected on Earth, having survived from their presence in interstellar dust since before the formation of the solar system, about 4.6 billion years ago. Another ~51 short-lived nuclides can be detected naturally as daughters of longer-lived nuclides or cosmic-ray products. The remaining known nuclides are known solely from artificial nuclear transmutation.

Numbers are not exact, and may change slightly in the future, as "stable nuclides" are observed to be radioactive with very long half-lives.

This is a summary table ^[19] for the 905 nuclides with half-lives longer than one hour (including those that are stable), given in list of nuclides.

Stability class	Number of nuclides	Running total	Notes on running total
Theoretically stable to all but proton decay	90	90	Includes first 40 elements. Proton decay yet to be observed.
Energetically unstable to one or more known decay modes, but no decay yet seen. Spontaneous fission possible for "stable" nuclides ≥ niobium-93; other mechanisms possible for heavier nuclides. All considered "stable" until decay detected.	164	254	Total of classically stable nuclides.
Radioactive primordial nuclides.	34	288	Total primordial elements include uranium, thorium, bismuth, rubidium-87, potassium-40 plus all stable nuclides.
Radioactive nonprimordial, but naturally occurring on Earth.	~ 51	~ 339	Carbon-14 (and other isotopes generated by cosmic rays) and daughters of radioactive primordial elements, such as radium, polonium, etc.
Radioactive synthetic (half-life ≥ 1.0 hour). Includes most useful radiotracers.	556	905	These 905 nuclides are listed in the article List of nuclides.
Radioactive synthetic (half-life < 1.0 hour).	>2400	>3300	Includes all well-characterized synthetic nuclides.

List of commercially available radionuclides

This list covers common isotopes, most of which are available in very small quantities to the general public in most countries. Others that are not publicly accessible are traded commercially in industrial, medical, and scientific fields and are subject to government regulation. For a complete list of all known isotopes for every element (minus activity data), see List of nuclides and Isotope lists. For a table, see Table of nuclides.

Gamma emission only

Isotope	Activity	Half-life	Energies (keV)
Barium-133	9694 TBq/kg (262 Ci/g)	10.7 years	81.0, 356.0
Cadmium-109	96200 TBq/kg (2600 Ci/g)	453 days	88.0
Cobalt-57	312280 TBq/kg (8440 Ci/g)	270 days	122.1
Cobalt-60	40700 TBq/kg (1100 Ci/g)	5.27 years	1173.2, 1332.5
Europium-152	6660 TBq/kg (180 Ci/g)	13.5 years	121.8, 344.3, 1408.0
Manganese-54	287120 TBq/kg (7760 Ci/g)	312 days	834.8
Sodium-22	237540 Tbq/kg (6240 Ci/g)	2.6 years	511.0, 1274.5
Zinc-65	304510 TBq/kg (8230 Ci/g)	244 days	511.0, 1115.5
Technetium-99m	1.95×10^4 TBq/g (5.27 × 10^7 Ci/g)	6 hours	140

Beta emission only

Isotope	Activity	Half-life	Energies (keV)
Strontium-90	5180 TBq/kg (140 Ci/g)	28.5 years	546.0
Thallium-204	17057 TBq/kg (461 Ci/g)	3.78 years	763.4
Carbon-14	166.5 TBq/kg (4.5 Ci/g)	5730 years	49.5 (average)
Tritium (Hydrogen-3)	357050 TBq/kg (9650 Ci/g)	12.32 years	5.7 (average)

Alpha emission only

Isotope	Activity	Half-life	Energies (keV)
Polonium-210	166500 TBq/kg (4500 Ci/g)	138.376 days	5304.5
Uranium-238	12580 KBq/kg (0.00000034 Ci/g)	4.468 billion years	4267

Multiple radiation emitters

Isotope	Activity	Half-life	Radiation types	Energies (keV)
Caesium-137	3256 TBq/kg (88 Ci/g)	30.1 years	Gamma & beta	G: 32, 661.6 B: 511.6, 1173.2
Americium-241	129.5 TBq/kg (3.5 Ci/g)	432.2 years	Gamma & alpha	G: 59.5, 26.3, 13.9 A: 5485, 5443

See also

• List of nuclides shows all radionuclides with half-life > 1 hour
• Hyperaccumulators table – 3
• Radioactivity in biology
• Radiometric dating
• Radionuclide cisternogram
• Uses of radioactivity in oil and gas wells

Notes

1. R.H. Petrucci, W.S. Harwood and F.G. Herring, General Chemistry (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002), p.1025–26
2. "Decay and Half Life". Retrieved 2009-12-14.
3. Stabin, Michael G. (2007). "3". Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-49983-3. ISBN 978-0387499826.
4. Best, Lara; Rodrigues, George; Velker, Vikram (2013). "1.3". Radiation Oncology Primer and Review. Demos Medical Publishing. ISBN 978-1620700044.
5. Loveland, W.; Morrissey, D.; Seaborg, G.T. (2006). Modern Nuclear Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. p. 57. ISBN 0-471-11532-0.
6. Eisenbud, Merril; Gesell, Thomas F (1997-02-25). Environmental Radioactivity: From Natural, Industrial, and Military Sources. p. 134. ISBN 9780122351549.
7. Bagnall, K. W. (1962). "The Chemistry of Polonium". Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry 4. New York: Academic Press. pp. 197–226. doi:10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60268-X. ISBN 0-12-023604-4. Retrieved June 14, 2012., p. 746
8. Bagnall, K. W. (1962). "The Chemistry of Polonium". Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry 4. New York: Academic Press., p. 198
9. Ingvar, David H.; Lassen, Niels A. (1961). "Quantitative determination of regional cerebral blood-flow in man". The Lancet. 278 (7206): 806–807. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(61)91092-3.
10. Ingvar, David H.; Franzén, Göran (1974). "Distribution of cerebral activity in chronic schizophrenia". The Lancet. 304 (7895): 1484–1486. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(74)90221-9.
11. Lassen, Niels A.; Ingvar, David H.; Skinhøj, Erik (October 1978). "Brain Function and Blood Flow" (PDF). Scientific American. 239 (4): 62–71. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1078-62.
12. Severijns, Nathal; Beck, Marcus; Naviliat-Cuncic, Oscar (2006). "Tests of the standard electroweak model in nuclear beta decay". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (3): 991. arXiv:nucl-ex/0605029. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..991S. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.991.
13. "Smoke Detectors and Americium". world-nuclear.org.
14. Office of Radiation Protection – Am 241 Fact Sheet – Washington State Department of Health
15. "PNNL: Isotope Sciences Program – Gadolinium-153". pnl.gov.
16. "Gadolinium". BCIT Chemistry Resource Center. British Columbia Institute of Technology. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
17. "Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures". World Health Organization. November 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
18. "Cosmic Detectives". The European Space Agency (ESA). 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
19. Table data is derived by counting members of the list; see WP:CALC. References for the list data itself are given below in the reference section in list of nuclides

References

• Carlsson, J.; Forssell Aronsson, E; Hietala, SO; Stigbrand, T; Tennvall, J; et al. (2003). "Tumour therapy with radionuclides: assessment of progress and problems". Radiotherapy and Oncology. 66 (2): 107–117. doi:10.1016/S0167-8140(02)00374-2. PMID 12648782.
• "Radioisotopes in Industry". World Nuclear Association.
• Martin, James (2006). Physics for Radiation Protection: A Handbook. p. 130. ISBN 3527406115.

Further reading

• Luig, H.; Kellerer, A. M.; Griebel, J. R. (2011). "Radionuclides, 1. Introduction". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_499.pub2. ISBN 3527306730.

External links

• EPA – Radionuclides – EPA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.
• FDA – Radionuclides – FDA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.
• Interactive Chart of Nuclides – A chart of all nuclides
• National Isotope Development Center – U.S. Government source of radionuclides – production, research, development, distribution, and information
• The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA