Bushfires in Australia

Looking towards the vibrator Swifts Creek, Victoria, in December 2006 during the Victorian Alpine Fires

Intense bushfires can seriously impact the environment, such as here by the Big River, near Anglers Rest, East Gippsland, after the 2003 Victorian fires

Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) rescued from bushfire

Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the hotter months of the year (mostly summer), due to Australia's mostly hot, dry climate. Each year, such fires impact extensive areas. While they can cause property damage and loss of human life, certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction, and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent. For thousands of years, Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense bush.

Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur, such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday. Some of the most intense, extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves, such as the 2009 Southern Australia heat wave, which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 people lost their lives. Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires, the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires and the December 2006 bushfires.

Victoria has seen the majority of the deadliest and largest bushfires in Australia, most notably the 2009 Black Saturday fires, where 173 people were killed, around 2,000 homes and structures were destroyed, towns were gutted, and some, such as Marysville, were destroyed.

Global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires^[1] and will lead to increased days of extreme fire danger.^[2][3]

Categories

Bushfires are uncontrolled fires lacking structure that burn in grasses, bushes, and forested area.^[4] The conditions of bushfires vary based on geographical and climate differences, and due to the various conditions found in Australia, their bushfires can vary greatly.^[4] "Fires can be divided into two main categories, depending on topography of the area".^[4]

• Hilly/mountainous fires – Burn in hilly/mountainous areas like the alpines which are heavy with forest.^[4] Due to location these areas are hard for humans to use for agriculture and are generally protected by national, state, and other organisations.^[4] The steepness of the land heightens the intensity of the fires produced.^[4] As a result, bushfires can pose a threat to the lives and properties of individuals that inhabit these areas.^[4]
• Flat/grassland fires – Burn in flat open areas full of grass and shrub.^[4] These fires can move quickly due to winds that feed fire causing them to fuel themselves faster with whatever vegetation is in the region. These fires never grow to same wild intensity of mountainous fires, because of the flatness of the area and they are easier to contain.^[4] Moreover, in Australia these areas have been stripped of vegetation that fuels the fire due to agriculture.^[4]

Common causes of bushfires include lightning,^[5] arcing from overhead power lines, arson, accidental ignition from agricultural clearing, grinding and welding, campfires, cigarettes and dropped matches, machinery, and controlled burn escapes.

History

Epicormic shoots sprouting vigorously from epicormic buds beneath the thick, bushfire-damaged bark of a Eucalyptus tree – one of the strategies evolved by plants to survive bushfires

Bushfire damage to forests in East Gippsland, Victoria from the of 2003, two years after fires swept through the area, showing the recovery of trees and undercroft

The natural fire regime in Australia was altered by the arrival of humans. Fires became more frequent, and fire-loving species—notably eucalypts—greatly expanded their range.^[6] It is assumed that a good deal of this change came about as the result of deliberate action by early humans, setting fires to clear undergrowth or drive game.^[7]

Plants have evolved a variety of strategies to survive (or even require) bushfires, (possessing epicormic shoots or lignotubers that sprout after a fire, or developing fire-resistant or fire-triggered seeds) or even encourage fire (eucalypts contain flammable oils in the leaves) as a way to eliminate competition from less fire-tolerant species.^[8]

Some native animals are also adept at surviving bushfires.^[9]

Impact

It is difficult to calculate the economic, social, and environmental costs of bushfires because general calculations do not take into account the basic tenets of economics.^[10] Regardless, in dealing with Australian government officials it is necessary to quantify the impact in some manner, so the importance of bushfire of management goes unquestioned.^[10] The Bushfire CRC took a methodological approach in evaluating cost, by considering what factors are most likely to be impacted.^[10] These factors include life loss, buildings, subsidies, community health

Warnings

In 2009, a standardised Fire Danger Rating (FDR) was adopted by all Australian states. During the fire season the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) provides fire weather forecasts and by considering the predicted weather including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and dryness of vegetation, fire agencies determine the appropriate Fire Danger Rating.^[11] In 2010, following a national review of the bush fire danger ratings, new trigger points for each rating were introduced for grassland areas in most jurisdictions. See for example the following glossary^[12]

Fire Danger Ratings are a feature of weather forecasts and alert the community to the actions they should take in preparation of the day. Ratings are broadcast via newspapers, radio, TV, and the internet.

Note that in Western Australia, where Fire Danger Ratings are based on the Grassland FDI, that Extreme relates to a Fire Danger Index (FDI) between 75 and 99 and Catastrophic to FDI above 100. Fire agencies may consider other factors in addition to the FDI in determining ratings.

Fire Danger Rating ^[11]

Category	Forest Fire Danger Index	Grassland Fire Danger Index
Catastrophic (Code Red)	100 +	150 +
Extreme	75 – 99	100 – 149
Severe	50 – 74	50 – 99
Very High	25 – 49	25 – 49
High	12 – 24	12 – 24
Low–Moderate	0 – 11	0 – 11

Regional management

The Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) is the peak body responsible for representing fire, emergency services and land management agencies in the Australasian region.

New South Wales

The New South Wales Rural Fire Service (RFS) is a volunteer-based firefighting agency and statutory body of the Government of New South Wales.^[13] The RFS is the lead combat agency for all bushfires in NSW. Fire and Rescue NSW are career and retained firefighters responsible for bushfires that occur within Fire District. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and the Forestry Corporation of NSW are land management agencies listed as Fire Authorities in the Rural Fires Act 1997.

South Australia

The Country Fire Service is a volunteer based fire service in the state of South Australia. The CFS operates as a part of the South Australian Fire and Emergency Services Commission (SAFECOM).

Queensland

The Rural Fire Service Queensland (RFSQ) is a volunteer-based firefighting agency and operates as part of the Queensland Fire and Emergency Services.^[14]

Victoria

Major bushfires in Victoria in the 2000s

In Victoria, the Country Fire Authority (CFA) provides firefighting and other emergency services to country areas and regional townships within the state, as well as large portions of the outer suburban areas and growth corridors of Melbourne not covered by the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.^[15] On Crown land, which covers roughly 20 per cent of Victoria, the Department of Environment and Primary Industries is the lead fire agency.

Tasmania

The Tasmania Fire Service (TFS) is the primary agency responsible for fire suppression and control for the state of Tasmania and its surrounding islands.

Western Australia

The Department of Fire and Emergency Services (DFES) and the Department of Parks and Wildlife(DPAW) have joint responsibility for bushfire management in Western Australia.^[16] DFES is an umbrella organisation supporting the Bush Fire Service, Emergency Services Cadets, Fire and Rescue Service, State Emergency Service, Volunteer Fire and Emergency Service, Volunteer Fire and Rescue Service, and the Volunteer Marine Rescue Services

Damage in the old Wagerup townsite after the Waroona fire in 2016

Seasonality

Bushfires in Australia can occur all year-round, though the severity and the "bushfire season" varies by region.^[17] These seasons are commonly grouped into years such as "2006-07 Australian bushfire season" and typically run from June one year until May the next year.

In southeast Australia, bushfires tend to be most common and most severe during summer and autumn (December–March), in drought years, and particularly severe in El Niño years. Southeast Australia is fire-prone, and warm and dry conditions intensify the probability of fire.^[18] In northern Australia, bushfires usually occur during the dry season (April to September),^[19] and fire severity tends to be more associated with seasonal weather patterns. In the southwest, similarly, bushfires occur in the summer dry season and severity is usually related to seasonal growth. Fire frequency in the north is difficult to assess, as the vast majority of fires are caused by human activity, however lightning strikes are as common a cause as human-ignited fires and arson.

Climate change

Australia's climate has been trending toward more bushfire weather over the last 30 years.^[20] The Climate Commission found that "The intensity and seasonality of large bushfires in south-east Australia appears to be changing, with climate change a possible contributing factor."^[21] Climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of heatwaves in Southeast Australia and the probability of extreme fire risk. As the fire seasons become longer, there is less time for fuel reduction burns to control the bush fuel load.^[2]

A 2006 report by the Bushfire CRC acknowledges the complexity of climate predictions pointing out "Much of [Australia's] vegetation has a complex evolutionary and dependent relationship with fire. Fire has been part of these environments for tens of thousands of years and much native flora and fauna remains dependent on it in various ways."^[22] In 2007, a study by the CSIRO (the national government body for scientific research in Australia), found evidence that climate change will lead to increases in very high and extreme fire danger rating days and earlier onset of the fire season.^[23] Other studies investigating the historical record identify significant changes in Australia's bushfire season as a result of human activity.^[24]

Major bushfires in Australia

This section lists some of the major individual fires that have occurred. For an index to articles on individual fire seasons see List of Australian bushfire seasons

Bushfires have accounted for over 800 deaths in Australia since 1851 and the total accumulated cost is estimated at $1.6 billion.^[25] In terms of monetary cost however, they rate behind the damage caused by drought, severe storms, hail, and cyclones,^[26] perhaps because they most commonly occur outside highly populated urban areas.

Australia's worst ever recorded natural disaster was the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires of 2009, where 173 people lost their lives and over 450,000 hectares of land was destroyed.

Some of the most severe Australian bushfires, in chronological order, have included:

Fire	Location	Area burned (1 ha ≈ 2.5 acres)	Date	Human fatalities	Livestock death/Properties damaged
Black Thursday bushfires	Victoria, Australia	≈ 5 million hectares (ha)	6 February 1851	about 12	1 million sheep; thousands of cattle[27][28]
Red Tuesday bushfires	Victoria	260,000 ha	1 February 1898	12	2,000 buildings[28]
1926 Victorian bushfires	Victoria		February – March 1926	60[29]	1000
Black Friday bushfires	Victoria	2 million ha	December 1938 – January 1939, peaking 13 January 1939	71	3,700
1944 Victorian bushfires	Victoria	1 million ha estimated	14 January – 14 February 1944	15–20	more than 500 houses[28]
1951-2 Victorian bushfires	Victoria		Summer 1951–52	at least 10[30]
Black Sunday bushfires	South Australia		2 January 1955	2
1961 Western Australian bushfires[31]	Western Australia	1,800,000 ha	January–March 1961	0	160 homes, town of Dwellingup destroyed
1962 Victorian bushfires	Victoria		14–16 January 1962	32	450 houses[29]
Chatsbury bushfire	New South Wales		5–14 March 1965	3	59 homes
1967 Tasmanian fires	Tasmania	Approximately 264,000 ha	7 February 1967	62	1,293 homes[28]
Dandenong Ranges bushfire	Victoria	1,920 ha	19 February 1968		53 homes 10 other buildings
1969 Victorian bushfires	Victoria		8 January 1969	23	230 houses[29]
1977 Western Districts bushfires	Victoria	103,000 ha	12 February 1977	4	116 houses, 340 Buildings
1978 Western Australian bushfires	Western Australia	114,000 ha	4 April 1978	2	6 buildings (drop in wind in early evening is said to have saved the towns of Donnybrook, Boyup Brook, Manjimup, and Bridgetown.)
1979 Sydney bushfires	Sydney, and regional NSW		December 1979	5	28 homes destroyed, 20 homes damaged[32]
1980 Waterfall bushfire	Waterfall, New South Wales	>1 million ha	3 November 1980	5 firefighters[33]	14 homes[34]
Ash Wednesday bushfires	South Australia and Victoria	418,000 ha	16 February 1983	75	about 2,400 houses
1985 Central Victoria bushfires	Victoria	50,800 ha	14 January 1985	3	180+ houses
1991 Sydney Hills District and Central Coast bushfires	New South Wales		16 October 1991	2	14 houses[35]
1994 Eastern seaboard fires	New South Wales	≈400,000 ha[36]	27 December 1993 – 16 January 1994	4	225 homes
Wooroloo bushfire	Western Australia	10,500 ha	8 January 1997	0	16 homes
Dandenongs bushfire	Victoria	400	21 January 1997	3	41 homes[37]
Lithgow bushfire	New South Wales		2 December 1997	2[37]
1997 Perth and SW Region bushfires	Western Australia	23,000 ha	2 December 1997	2 (21 injuries)	1 home lost
Linton bushfire	Victoria		2 December 1998	5
Black Christmas bushfires	New South Wales	300,000 ha	24 December 2001 – 7 January 2002	0	109 homes
2003 Canberra bushfires	Canberra, Australian Capital Territory	160,000 ha[28]	18–22 January 2003	4	almost 500 homes[37]
2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires	Victoria	over 1.3 million ha	8 January – 8 March 2003	3	41 homes
Tenterden bushfire	Western Australia	20,000 ha	27 December 2003	2	Crop, property and stock damage (2,110,000 ha of forest burnt during the 2002–2003 bushfire season in the Southwest of Western Australia)
Eyre Peninsula bushfire	South Australia	145,000 ha	10–12 January 2005	9	93 homes
2005 Victorian bushfires	Victoria	160,000 ha	December 2005 – January 2006	4	57 houses, 359 farm buildings, 65,000 stock losses, fires occurred in the Stawell, Moondarra, Anakie, Yea, and Kinglake regions[38]
2006 Central Coast bushfire	Central Coast, New South Wales		New Years Day, 2006
Jail Break Inn Fire	Junee, New South Wales	30,000 ha[39]	New Years Day, 2006	0	Livestock losses estimated to be over 20,000. Seven homes, seven headers and four shearing sheds destroyed. 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) of fencing damaged.[40]
Mount Lubra bushfire	Victoria	184,000	January 2006	2	A total of 25 houses, more than 50 other buildings were destroyed.
Pulletop bushfire	Wagga Wagga, New South Wales	9,000	6 February 2006	0	2,500 sheep and 6 cattle killed, 3 vehicles and 2 hay sheds destroyed as well as 50 km of fencing.
2006–07 Eastern Victoria Great Divide bushfires	Victoria	1,200,000 - 1,300,000 ha	1 December 2006 – 6 February 2007	1	51 homes[41][42]
Dwellingup bushfire	Western Australia	12,000 ha	4 February 2007	0	16
Kangaroo Island bushfires	South Australia	95,000 ha	6–14 December 2007	1
Boorabbin National Park bushfire	Western Australia	40,000 ha	30 December 2007	3	Powerlines and Great Eastern Highway, forced to close for 2 weeks
Black Saturday bushfires	Victoria	450,000+ ha	7 February 2009 – 14 March 2009	173	2,029+ houses, 2,000 other structures
Toodyay bushfire	Western Australia	3,000+ ha	29 December 2009	0	38
Lake Clifton bushfire	Western Australia	2,000+ ha	11 January 2011	0	10 homes destroyed
Roleystone Kelmscott bushfire	Western Australia	1,500+ ha	6–8 February 2011	0	72 homes destroyed, 32 damaged, Buckingham Bridge on Brookton Highway collapsed and closed for 3 weeks whilst a temporary bridge was constructed and opened a month after the fires
Margaret River bushfire	Western Australia	4,000 ha	24 November 2011	0	34 homes destroyed including the historic Wallcliffe House[43]
Carnarvon bushfire complex	Western Australia	800,000 ha +	27 December 2011 – 3 February 2012	0	11 pastoral stations (fences, watering systems, water points, stock feed).
2013 Tasmanian bushfires	Tasmania	20,000+ ha	4 January 2013	1	At least 170 buildings
2013 Wambelong bushfire	New South Wales	54,000 ha	18 January 2013	0	At least 53 homes, 118 sheds, agricultural machinery and livestock. Infrastructure destroyed at Siding Spring Observatory.[44]
2013 New South Wales bushfires	New South Wales	100,000+ ha	16 October – November 2013	2	As of 19 October 2013 at least 248 buildings destroyed statewide (inc. 208 dwellings),[45] another 109 damaged in Springwood, Winmalee and Yellow Rock[46][47] Major fires also occurred in the Hunter, Central Coast, Macarthur and Port Stephens regions causing significant damage.
2014 Parkerville bushfire	Western Australia	386 ha	12 January 2014	0	56 homes.
2014 South Australian bushfires	South Australia	300,000+ ha	14 January – 14 February 2014	10	The majority of these fires started from Lightning. Bangor Fire – 35,000 ha, 5 houses lost, 24 injuries – 14 Jan to 14 Feb Eden Valley Fire – 25,000 ha, 4 houses lost - 17 to 20 Jan Ngarkat Fire – 90,000 ha, 17 to 20 Jan Rockleigh Fire – unknown ha, 1 house, 14 to 17 Jan Ceduna Complex of Fires – 46,000 ha, 14 to 17 Jan Billiatt Fire (Riverland Complex of Fires) – 92,000+ ha, 14 to 23 Jan[48]
2014 Grampians bushfire	Victoria	51,800 ha	17 January 2014	1	Fire so intense it created a 12 km-wide convection column, generating its own weather and lightning strikes.
2014 East Gippsland bushfires	Victoria	166,000 ha	15 January – 10 March 2014	0	On 15 January several lightning strikes started fires in forested areas. During February further lightning strikes occurred, and especially on 9 February these fires grew and coalesced into a 166,000ha Goongerrah-Deddick Fire complex (850 km perimeter) with other smaller fires affecting a further 10,000 ha. 11 homes destroyed.
2015 Sampson Flat bushfires	South Australia	12,500 ha	2–9 January 2015	0	32 homes either badly damaged or destroyed. 134 people injured, mostly firefighters.[49]
2015 O'Sullivan bushfire (Northcliffe - Windy Harbour)	Western Australia	98,923 ha	29 January – 20 February 2015	0	1 home and 1 inhabited shed, 5 farm sheds and thousands of production forests (karri and jarrah) or national parks.
2015 Lower Hotham bushfire (Boddington)	Western Australia	52,373 ha	January 2015	0	1 house, 1 farm shed, 1 bridge and thousands of production forest (jarrah) or national parks.
2015 Esperance bushfires	Western Australia	more than 200,000 ha[50]	October – November 2015	4[51]	About 10 houses and public buildings (Scaddan), 5 Nature Reserves et most area of Cape Arid national park.
Perth Hills bushfire complex - Solus Group	Western Australia	10,016 ha	15 to 24 November 2015	0	Jarrah production forest and Conservation Park.
2015 Pinery bushfire	South Australia	85,000 ha	25–27 November 2015	2	91 homes, 60,000 livestock.[52][53]
2015–16 Great Ocean Road bushfire	Victoria	2,200 ha[54]	25 December 2015 – 5 January 2016	0[55]	116 homes: Wye River, Victoria (98) & Separation Creek (18)[54]
2016 Murray Road bushfire (Waroona et Harvey)[56]	Western Australia	69,165 ha	January 2016	2	181 habitations (166 only in Yarloop) and thousands of hectares of production forest (jarrah).
2016 Tasmanian bushfires	Tasmania	100,000 ha	January- February 2016 (ongoing)	0	Some of the dead trees killed by the bushfires were more than 1000 years old and part of a confined, Gondwana-era ecosystem and world heritage zones unique to Tasmania that in some cases have never burned before.[57]

See also

• Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave, which generated extreme fire conditions
• Bushfire CRC, research centre and catalogue of over 1500 papers, journal articles, and research publications related to key aspects of bushfire in Australia.
• Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC, current research and activities.

References

1. Milman, Oliver (24 October 2013). "Climate Council finds 'clear link' between bushfires and climate change". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 October 2013."There is a "clear link" between climate change and bushfires, with the current New South Wales fires influenced by a rising frequency of hot, dry days, according to the climate body that had its funding withdrawn by the Coalition government. * * * The Climate Council’s interim findings, drawn from 60 peer-reviewed studies, show climate change is influencing the number of extremely warm days in Australia, as well as prolonged periods of low rainfall."
2. "Bushfires and Climate Change in Australia – The Facts". The Climate Council. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
3. "Longer bushfire seasons leave Australia exposed". The Climate Council. 1 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
4. Henkel, Marion. 21st Century Homestead: Sustainable Agriculture III: Agricultural Practices. Lulu.com. p. 131. ISBN 9781312939752.
5. Dowdy Andrew, J. and Graham A. Mills. Atmospheric and Fuel Moisture Characteristics Associated with Lightning-Attributed Fires. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 52.11 (2012):2025-2037.
6. Flannery, T. (1994) "The future eaters" Reed Books Melbourne.
7. Wilson, B., S. Boulter, et al. (2000). Queensland's resources. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet eds. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources.
8. White, M. E. 1986. The Greening of Gondwana. Reed Books, Frenchs Forest, Australia.
9. Effects of fire on plants and animals "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 2010-12-27.. Retrieved June 2012
10. "Bushfire Economic Costs | BFCRC Legacy". www.bushfirecrc.com. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
11. "New Warning System Explained". Country Fire Authority. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
12. Country Fire service of South Australia website http://www.cfs.sa.gov.au/site/home/cfs_glossary.jsp. Retrieved September 2011
13. "NSW Rural Fire Service". New South Wales Government. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
14. "Rural Fire Service Queensland".
15. "Country Fire Authority". Country Fire Authority. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
16. "Welcome to DFES". Department of Fire and Emergency Services of Western Australia. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
17. Luke RH, McArthur AG (1978). Bushfires in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
18. Sullivan, Rohan (11 February 2009). "Hot and dry Australia sees wildfire danger rise". The Association Press. Retrieved 13 February 2009.
19. "Monsoonal Climate". Questacon. Retrieved 9 September 2006.
20. "Bushfire weather in Southeast Australia: Media Brief", The Climate Institute, 26 September 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
21. "The Critical Decade: Climate science, risks and responses" Archived 24 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine., The Climate Commission, 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
22. "CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BUSHFIRE" (PDF). Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre. September 2006. p. 4. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
23. CSIRO (2007). "Bushfire Weather in Southeast Australia Recent Trends and Projected Climate Change Impacts" (PDF). Retrieved 13 November 2013.
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25. "Summary of Major Bush Fires in Australia Since 1851". Romsey Australia. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
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27. Black Thursday. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
28. ABS 1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2004. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 24 March 2006. Retrieved 10 February 2009
29. "Major bushfires in Victoria". Department of Sustainability and Environment. Archived from the original on 3 August 2008. Retrieved 15 February 2009.
30. "Chisholm, Alec H.". The Australian Encyclopaedia. 2. Sydney: Halstead Press. 1963. p. 207. Bushfires.
31. Matthews, H (2011) Karridale Bush Fires 1961, Karridale Progress Association Inc. ISBN 978-0-9871467-0-0
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35. "History". nsw.gov.au.
36. "Bushfires – Get the Facts". Attorney-General's Department. Retrieved 9 January 2013
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40. "Generous support coming in for farmers affected by bushfires". NSW Department of Primary Industries. New South Wales Government. 6 January 2006. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
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44. Van de Wetering, Jodie (11 March 2013). "A timeline of the Coonabarabran bushfires". ABC (Western Plains). Retrieved 22 October 2013.
45. "Update – Damage assessment and fire investigation" (PDF) (Press release). New South Wales Rural Fire Service. 19 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
46. "Watch and Act – Linksview Road Fire, Springwood (Blue Mountains) 19/10/13 11:40". NSW Rural Fire Service. 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
47. Madden, James. "Firestorm destroys NSW communities as hundreds of homes could be lost". The Australian. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
48. "SA Country Fire Service Bushfire History". Retrieved 7 February 2015.
49. "Key facts about SA's Sampson Flat bushfire". www.news.com.au. 7 January 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2015.
50. http://www.watoday.com.au/wa-news/esperance-bushfire-flares-up-again--and-more-lightning-could-be-on-the-way-20151121-gl4ho8.html
51. Taylor, Roxanne; Powell, Graeme (18 November 2015). "German backpackers, farmer believed dead in Esperance fires". ABC News. ABC. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
52. McLoughlin, Chris (19 December 2015). "Pinery bushfire: Tally of homes destroyed rises to 91 as SA Govt prepares to hand out first relief payments". ABC News. ABC. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
53. "Pinery bushfire insurance claims reach $75m as CFS tackle multiple fires in strong winds". ABC News. 30 November 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
54. "Great Ocean Road fire: Number of homes lost in Christmas Day blaze rises to 116". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
55. "Great Ocean Road fire: Victoria should 'stand proud' that no lives lost at Wye River, Separation Creek". ABC News. ABC. 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
56. Ferguson, Euan (Special Commissioner) (29 April 2016). Report of the Special Inquiry Into the January 2016 Waroona Fire (“Reframing Rural Fire Management”) (Report). Vol. 1. Government of Western Australia–Waroona Fire Special Enquiry. Retrieved 12 August 2016 – via www.documentcloud.org. (PDF version)
57. PR war over fires in Tasmania's world heritage area takes to the air, The Age, 13 February 2016

External links

• "Bushfires overview". CSIRO.
• "Australian fire risk and season maps". Romsey Australia.
• "Sentinel - map of satellite detected hotspots". Geoscience Australia.
• "Summary of bushfire alerts for ACT, NSW, QLD, SA, WA, VIC and TAS". Early Warning Network.
• "Cooperative research centre focussing on bushfire and natural hazards in Australia". Bushfire and Natural Hazard CRC.
• "Bushfire Preparation Guide". Westpac.