Cao Wei

Wei
魏
220–265
The territories of Cao Wei (in green), 262 AD.
Capital		Luoyang
Languages		Old Chinese
Religion		Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion
Government		Monarchy
Emperor
•	220–226	Cao Pi
•	226–239	Cao Rui
•	239–254	Cao Fang
•	254–260	Cao Mao
•	260–265	Cao Huan
Historical era		Three Kingdoms
•	Abdication of Emperor Xian of Han	10 December 220
•	Eastern Wu declaring independence from Wei	222
•	Cao Wei conquers Shu Han	263
•	Abdication of Cao Huan	4 February 265
Population
•	260 est.	4,432,881 (disputed)[1][lower-alpha 1]
Currency		Chinese coin, Chinese cash
Preceded by Succeeded by Eastern Han Western Jin Eastern Wu
Today part of		China  North Korea  Vietnam (220-222; 263-265)

Cao Wei
Traditional Chinese	曹魏
Simplified Chinese	曹魏
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Cáo Wèi Gwoyeu Romatzyh Tsaur Wey Wade–Giles Ts'ao^2 Wei^4 IPA [tsʰǎu̯ u̯êi̯] Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Cou^4 Ngai^6 Yale Romanization Chòuh Ngaih Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tsô Guī

Cao Wei (220–265) was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). With its capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations laid by his father, Cao Cao, towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. Its name originated as such: In 213, Cao Cao's feudal holdings were given the name "Wei" by the Eastern Han government. Historians often add the prefix "Cao" to distinguish it from other Chinese states known as "Wei", such as Wei of the Warring States period and Northern Wei of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The authority of the ruling Cao family gradually weakened after the death of the second Wei emperor, Cao Rui, and eventually fell into the hands of Sima Yi, a Wei regent, and his family, in 249. Cao Rui's successors remained as puppet rulers under the control of the Simas until Sima Yi's grandson, Sima Yan, forced the last Wei ruler, Cao Huan, to abdicate the throne and established the Jin dynasty.

History

Beginnings and founding

A bronze crossbow trigger mechanism, Wei dynasty, 242 AD

Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, northern China came under the control of Cao Cao, the chancellor to the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian. In 213, Emperor Xian granted Cao Cao the title of "Duke of Wei" (魏公) and gave him ten cities as his dukedom. The area was named "Wei". At that time, the southern part of China was divided into two areas controlled by two other warlords, Liu Bei and Sun Quan. In 216, Emperor Xian promoted Cao Cao to the status of a vassal king — "King of Wei (魏王)" — and granted him more territories.

Cao Cao died on 15 March 220 and his vassal king title was inherited by his son Cao Pi. Later that year, on 11 December, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and took over the throne, establishing the state of Wei. However, Liu Bei immediately contested Cao Pi's claim to the Han throne and declared himself "Emperor of Shu Han" a year later. Sun Quan was nominally a vassal king under Wei, but he declared independence in 222 and eventually proclaimed himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229.

Reigns of Cao Pi and Cao Rui

Cao Pi ruled for six years until his death in 226 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Rui, who ruled until his death in 239. Throughout the reigns of Cao Pi and Cao Rui, Wei had been fighting numerous wars with its two rival states — Shu and Wu.

Between 228 and 234, Zhuge Liang, the Shu chancellor and regent, led a series of five military campaigns to attack Wei's western borders (within present-day Gansu and Shaanxi), with the aim of conquering Chang'an, a strategic city which lay on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang. The Shu invasions were repelled by the Wei armies led by the generals Cao Zhen, Sima Yi, Zhang He and others; Shu did not make any significant gains in the expeditions.

On its southern and eastern borders, Wei engaged Wu in a series of armed conflicts throughout the 220s and 230s, including the battles of Dongkou (222-223), Jiangling (223) and Shiting (228). However, most of the battles resulted in stalemate and neither side managed to significantly expand its territory.

Goguryeo–Wei Wars

Around that time, as the Korean kingdom Goguryeo consolidated its power, it proceeded to act to conquer the territories on the Korean peninsula which were under Chinese rule.^[4] Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei Wars in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, Wei responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. Hwando was destroyed in revenge by Wei forces in 244.^[4]

Fall of Wei

In 249, during the reign of Cao Rui's successor, Cao Fang, the regent Sima Yi seized state power from his co-regent, Cao Shuang, in a coup. This event marked the collapse of imperial authority in Wei, as Cao Fang's role had been reduced to a puppet ruler while Sima Yi wielded state power firmly in his hands. Sima Yi died in 251 and passed on his authority to his eldest son, Sima Shi, who continued ruling as regent. Sima Shi deposed Cao Fang in 254 and replaced him with Cao Mao. After Sima Shi died in the following year, his younger brother, Sima Zhao, inherited his power and status as regent. In 260, Cao Mao attempted to seize back state power from Sima Zhao in a coup, but was killed by Sima's subordinate, Cheng Ji (成濟).

After Cao Mao's death, Cao Huan was enthroned as the fifth ruler of Wei. However, Cao Huan was also a figurehead under Sima Zhao's control much like his predecessor. In 263, Wei armies led by Zhong Hui and Deng Ai conquered Shu. Two years later, Sima Zhao's son, Sima Yan, forced Cao Huan to abdicate in his favour, replacing Wei with the Jin dynasty.

Government

The system of government in Wei inherited many aspects from that of the Eastern Han dynasty. During his reign, Cao Pi established two separate government bodies - the Central Inspectorate (中書監) and the Mobile Imperial Secretariat (行尚書臺) — to reduce the authority of the Imperial Secretariat (尚書臺) and consolidate the power of the central government.

During this time, the minister Chen Qun developed the nine-rank system for civil service nomination, which was adopted by later dynasties until it was superseded by the imperial examination system in the Sui dynasty.

Cao Pi felt that the Han dynasty collapsed because the Governors (州牧) of the various provinces wielded too much power and fell out of the control of the central government. He reduced the role of a Governor to that of an Inspector (刺史), and permitted the Inspectors to administer only civil affairs in their respective provinces, while military affairs were handled by military personnel based in regional offices or in the capital.

Culture

Sometime between the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Cao Wei dynasty, kaishu, a style of Chinese calligraphy, appeared, with its first known master being Zhong Yao, who also served as a politician in Wei.^[5]

Ruling class

According to the Book of Wei, the Cao family descended from the Yellow Emperor through his grandson Zhuanxu. They were of the same lineage as Emperor Shun. Another account says that the Cao family descended from Emperor Shun. This account was attacked by Chiang Chi, who claimed that those with the family name "Tian" descended from Shun, but not those surnamed "Cao". He also claimed that "Gui" (媯) was Emperor Shun's family name.^[6]

List of territories

You Province
幽州

Commanderies
Fanyang 范陽	Dai 代	Yuyang 漁陽	Right Beiping 右北平	Liaoxi 遼西	Lelang 樂浪	Shanggu 上谷	Yan (state) 燕國	Changli 昌黎	Xuantu 玄菟	Liaodong 遼東	Daifang 帶方

Ji Province
冀州

Commanderies
Wei 魏	Yangping 陽平	Guangping 廣平	Qinghe 清河	Julu 鉅鹿	Zhao (state) 趙國	Changshan 常山	Anping 安平	Pingyuan 平原	Leling (state) 樂陵	Hejian 河間	Bohai 渤海	Zhongshan (state) 中山國

Qing Province 青州 Commanderies Chengyang 城陽 Donglai 東萊 Beihai (state) 北海國 Qi (state) 齊國 Le'an 樂安 Jinan (state) 濟南國

Bing Province 并州 Commanderies Shangdang 上黨 Xihe 西河 Taiyuan 太原 Leping 樂平 Xinxing 新興 Yanmen 雁門

Si Province 司州 Commanderies Henan 河南尹 Hongnong 弘農 Henei 河內 Hedong 河東 Pingyang 平陽

Yan Province 兗州 Commanderies Taishan 泰山 Jibei (state) 濟北國 Dongping (state) 東平國 Dong 東 Rencheng 任城 Shanyang 山陽 Jiyin 濟陰 Chenliu (state) 陳留國

Xu Province 徐州 Commanderies Dongguan 東莞 Langye (state) 琅琊國 Donghai (state) 東海國 Guangling 廣陵 Xiapi 下邳 Pengcheng (state) 彭城國

Yong Province 雍州 Commanderies Jingzhao 京兆 Pingyi 馮翊 Fufeng 扶風 Beidi 北地 Xinping 新平 Anding 安定 Guangwei 廣魏 Tianshui 天水 Nan'an 南安 Longxi 隴西

Yu Province 豫州 Commanderies Chen 陳 Yingchuan 潁川 Runan 汝南 Liang (state) 梁國 Pei (state) 沛國 Qiao 譙 Lu 魯 Yiyang 弋陽 Anfeng 安豐

Liang Province 涼州 Commanderies Wuwei 武威 Jincheng 金城 Xiping 西平 Zhangye 張掖 Jiuquan 酒泉 Xihai 西海 Dunhuang 敦煌

Yang Province 揚州 Commanderies Huainan 淮南 Lujiang 廬江

Jing Province 荊州 Commanderies Jiangxia 江夏 Xiangyang 襄陽 Xincheng 新城 Nanyang 南陽 Nanxiang 南鄉 Shangyong 上庸 Weixing 魏興 Zhangling (Yiyang) 章陵 (義陽)

List of sovereigns

Cao Wei rulers

Temple name	Posthumous name	Family name (in bold) and personal name	Reign	Era names and their year ranges	Notes
(N/A)	Emperor Gao 高皇帝	Cao Teng 曹騰	(N/A)	(N/A)	Cao Teng's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Cao Rui.
(N/A)	Emperor Tai 太皇帝	Cao Song 曹嵩	(N/A)	(N/A)	Cao Song's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Cao Pi.
Taizu 太祖	Emperor Wu 武皇帝	Cao Cao 曹操	(N/A)	(N/A)	Cao Cao's temple and posthumous names were granted posthumously by Cao Pi.
Shizu 世祖	Emperor Wen 文皇帝	Cao Pi 曹丕	220-226	Huangchu 黃初 (220-226)
Liezu 烈祖	Emperor Ming 明皇帝	Cao Rui 曹叡	227-239	Taihe 太和 (227-233) Qinglong 青龍 (233-237) Jingchu 景初 (237-239)
(N/A)	(N/A)	Cao Fang 曹芳	240-249	Zhengshi 正始 (240-249) Jiaping 嘉平 (249-254)	Cao Fang became "Prince of Qi" (齊王) after his dethronement. He was posthumously granted the title "Duke Li of Shaoling" (邵陵厲公) in the Western Jin dynasty.
(N/A)	(N/A)	Cao Mao 曹髦	254-260	Zhengyuan 正元 (254-256) Ganlu 甘露 (256-260)	Cao Mao was granted the posthumous name of "Duke of Gaogui" (高貴鄉公).
(N/A)	Emperor Yuan 元皇帝	Cao Huan 曹奐	260-265	Jingyuan 景元 (260-264) Xianxi 咸熙 (264-265)

Cao Wei family tree

See also

• Cao Wei family trees
• Three Kingdoms
• Shu Han
• Eastern Wu

Notes

1. This figure, based on numbers given in the Sanguozhi, has been called into question since the census system is claimed to have been flawed. The actual population is likely to be far greater.^[2] Tanner (2009) estimates the population of Wei to be over ⅔ of the Han population.^[3]

References

1. Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhongguo Tongshi - Weijin Nanbeichao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
2. Institute of Advanced Studies (December 1991). Barme, Gerome, ed. Easy Asian History: THE CONTINUATION OF Papers on Far Eastern History (PDF) (Number 2 ed.). Canberra, Australia: Australian National University. pp. 149–152. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
3. Tanner, Harold M. (13 March 2009). "Chapter 5: The Age of Warriors and Buddhists". China: A History. Hackett Publishing. p. 142. When it was established, Wu had only one-sixth of the population of the Eastern Han Empire (Cao Wei held over two-thirds of the Han population).
4. Charles Roger Tennant (1996). A history of Korea. Kegan Paul International. p. 22. ISBN 0-7103-0532-X. capital on the middle reaches of the Yalu near the modern Chinese town of Ji'an, calling it 'Hwando'. By developing both their iron weapons and their political organization, they had reached a stage where in the turmoil that accompanied the break-up of the Han empire they were able to threaten the Chinese colonies
5. Qiu Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. Translated by Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7; p.142-3
6. Howard L. Goodman (1998). Ts'ao P'i transcendent: the political culture of dynasty-founding in China at the end of the Han (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-9666300-0-9. Retrieved 2012-04-01.

Further reading

• de Crespigny, Rafe. "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 201 to 220 AD as recorded in Chapters 64 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 2. Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 0-7315-2526-4.