Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1951)
Born (1915-09-28)September 28, 1915 (Ethel)
(1918-05-12)May 12, 1918 (Julius)
New York City (both)
Died June 19, 1953(1953-06-19) (aged 37) Ethel
June 19, 1953(1953-06-19) (aged 35) Julius
Ossining, New York (both)
Resting place Wellwood Cemetery
Suffolk County, New York
Occupation Actress, singer, secretary (Ethel), electrical engineer (Julius)
Religion Jewish
Criminal charge Conspiracy to commit espionage
Criminal penalty Capital punishment
Criminal status Executed
Children Michael Meeropol, Robert Meeropol

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were United States citizens who spied for the Soviet Union and were tried, convicted, and executed for conspiracy to commit espionage. They were instrumental in the transmission of information about top-secret military technology and prototypes of mechanisms related to the atomic bomb, which were of value to the Soviet nuclear weapons program.[1][2]

Other co-conspirators were imprisoned, including Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, who supplied documents from Los Alamos to Julius and who served 10 years of his 15 year sentence; Harry Gold, who identified Greenglass and served 15 years in Federal prison as the courier for Greenglass; and a German scientist, Klaus Fuchs, who served nine years and four months.[3][4]

For many decades defenders of the Rosenbergs, including their sons, maintained that they were innocent and victims of Cold war paranoia. After the fall of the USSR, much information concerning the case was declassified, including a trove of decoded Soviet cables, codenamed VENONA, which detailed Julius's role as a courier and recruiter for the Soviets and Ethel's role as an accessory. The Rosenbergs' sons' current position is that Julius was legally guilty of the conspiracy charge, though not of atomic spying, while Ethel was only generally aware of his activities. They believe that he did not deserve the death penalty and that she was wrongly convicted. They continue to campaign for Ethel to be legally exonerated.[5]

In 2014, five historians who had published on the Rosenberg case wrote that Soviet documents show that "Ethel Rosenberg hid money and espionage paraphernalia for Julius, served as an intermediary for communications with his Soviet intelligence contacts, provided her personal evaluation of individuals Julius considered recruiting, and was present at meetings with his sources. They also demonstrate that Julius reported to the KGB that Ethel persuaded Ruth Greenglass to travel to New Mexico to recruit David as a spy."[6]

There is a consensus among historians that Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were guilty, but their trial was marred by clear judicial and legal improprieties and they should not have been executed.[7][8] Distilling this consensus, Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz wrote that the Rosenbergs were "guilty – and framed".[9][10]

Early lives and education

Julius Rosenberg was born to a family of Jewish immigrants in New York City on May 12, 1918. The family moved to the Lower East Side by the time Julius was 11. His parents worked in the shops of the Lower East Side, as Julius attended Seward Park High School. Julius became a leader in the Young Communist League USA while at City College of New York (CCNY). In 1939, he graduated from CCNY with a degree in electrical engineering.[11]

Ethel Greenglass was born on September 28, 1915, to a Jewish family in New York City. She originally was an aspiring actress and singer, but eventually took a secretarial job at a shipping company. She became involved in labor disputes and joined the Young Communist League, where she met Julius in 1936. They married in 1939.[12] Together they had two sons, Michael and Robert, born in 1943 and 1947 respectively.

Espionage

Julius Rosenberg joined the Army Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, in 1940, where he worked as an engineer-inspector until 1945. He was fired when the U.S. Army discovered his previous membership in the Communist Party. Important research on electronics, communications, radar and guided missile controls was undertaken at Fort Monmouth during World War II.[13]

According to a 2001 book by his former handler Alexander Feklisov, Rosenberg was originally recruited by the NKVD on Labor Day 1942 by former spymaster Semyon Semyonov.[14] He had been introduced to Semyonov by Bernard Schuster, a high-ranking member of the Communist Party USA as well as Earl Browder's personal NKVD liaison. After Semyonov was recalled to Moscow in 1944, his duties were taken over by Feklisov.[14]

Rosenberg provided thousands of classified reports from Emerson Radio, including a complete proximity fuse, an upgraded model of which was used to shoot down Gary Powers' U-2 in 1960. Under Feklisov's administration, Rosenberg recruited sympathetic individuals into NKVD service, including Joel Barr, Alfred Sarant, William Perl and Morton Sobell.[15] Perl supplied Feklisov, under Rosenberg's direction, with thousands of documents from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, including a complete set of design and production drawings for Lockheed's P-80 Shooting Star, the first U.S. jet plane. Feklisov learned through Rosenberg that Ethel's brother David Greenglass was working on the top-secret Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory; he directed Julius to recruit Greenglass.[14]

In February 1944, Rosenberg also succeeded in recruiting a second source of Manhattan Project information, engineer Russell McNutt, who worked on designs for the plants at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. For this coup, Rosenberg received a $100 bonus. McNutt's employment provided access to secrets about processes for manufacturing weapons-grade uranium.[16][17]

The USSR and the U.S. were allies during World War II, but the Americans did not share information about or seek assistance from the Soviet Union for the Manhattan Project. The West was shocked by the speed with which the Soviets were able to stage their first nuclear test, "Joe 1", on August 29, 1949.[18] In January 1950, the U.S. discovered that Klaus Fuchs, a German refugee theoretical physicist working for the British mission in the Manhattan Project, had given key documents to the Soviets throughout the war. Fuchs identified his courier as Harry Gold, who was arrested on May 23, 1950.[19] Gold confessed and identified David Greenglass as an additional source.

David Greenglass was arrested by the FBI for espionage in June 1950 and confessed to having passed secret information on to the USSR through Gold. He also claimed that his sister's husband Julius had convinced his wife Ruth to recruit him while on a visit to him in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in 1944. He said Julius had passed secrets and thus linked him to the Soviet contact agent Anatoli Yakovlev. This connection would be necessary as evidence if there was to be a conviction for espionage of the Rosenbergs.[20]

Another accused conspirator, Morton Sobell, fled to Mexico City, where he tried to figure out a way to reach Europe without a passport. Abandoning that effort, he returned to Mexico City, from which he claimed to have been kidnapped by members of the Mexican secret police and driven to the U.S. border, where he was arrested by U.S. forces.[21][22] The government claimed Sobell was arrested by the Mexican police for bank robbery on August 16, 1950, and extradited the next day to the United States in Laredo, Texas.[22] He was charged and tried with the Rosenbergs on one count of conspiracy to commit espionage.

Grand jury


At a secret meeting on February 8, 1950, twenty senior government officials met to discuss the Rosenberg case. Gordon Dean, the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, stated: "It looks as though Rosenberg is the king pin of a very large ring, and if there is any way of breaking him by having the shadow of a death penalty over him, we want to do it." Myles Lane, a member of the prosecution team, said that the case against Ethel Rosenberg was "not too strong", but that it was "very important that she be convicted too, and given a stiff sentence".[23]

The problem of a weak case against Ethel Rosenberg was solved just 10 days before the start of the trial when David and Ruth Greenglass were reinterviewed. They were persuaded to change their original stories. David had said that he'd passed the atomic data he'd collected to Julius on a New York street corner. Now he stated that he'd given this information to Julius in the living room of the Rosenberg's New York apartment and that Ethel, at Julius's request, had taken his notes and "typed them up". In her reinterview Ruth expanded on her husband's version: "Julius then took the info into the bathroom and read it and when he came out he called Ethel and told her she had to type this info immediately... Ethel then sat down at the typewriter which she placed on a bridge table in the living room and proceeded to type the info which David had given to Julius." As a result of this new testimony, all charges against Ruth were dropped.[24]

On August 11, Ethel Rosenberg testified before a grand jury. She refused to answer all the questions and as she left the courthouse she was taken into custody by FBI agents. Her attorney asked the U.S. Commissioner to parole her in his custody over the weekend, so that she could make arrangements for her two young children. The request was denied.[25] Julius and Ethel were put under pressure to incriminate others involved in the spy ring. Neither offered any further information. On August 17, the grand jury returned an indictment alleging 11 overt acts. Both Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were indicted, as were David Greenglass and Anatoli Yakovlev.[26]

Trial and conviction

Side- and front-view portrait photographs of woman wearing white apparel. The woman has thick, black, curly hair and maintains an emotionless face
Police booking photograph of Ethel Rosenberg
Police booking photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest
David Greenglass' sketch of an implosion-type nuclear weapon design, illustrating what he allegedly gave the Rosenbergs to pass on to the Soviet Union

The trial of the Rosenbergs and Sobell began on March 6, 1951. The judge was Irving Kaufman. The prosecutor was Irving Saypol, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York. The attorney for the Rosenbergs was Emanuel Hirsch Bloch.[27][28] The prosecution's primary witness, David Greenglass, stated that he turned over to his brother-in-law Julius Rosenberg a sketch of the cross-section of an implosion-type atom bomb (the "Fat Man" bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, as opposed to a bomb with the "gun method" triggering device as used in the "Little Boy" bomb dropped on Hiroshima).[29] He also testified that his sister Ethel Rosenberg typed notes containing U.S. nuclear secrets in the Rosenberg apartment in September 1945.

Both Rosenbergs remained defiant and during testimony asserted their right under the U.S. Constitution's Fifth Amendment to not incriminate themselves whenever asked about involvement in the Communist Party or with its members.

The Rosenbergs were convicted on March 29, 1951, and on April 5 were sentenced to death by Judge Kaufman under Section 2 of the Espionage Act of 1917, 50 U.S. Code 32 (now 18 U.S. Code 794), which prohibits transmitting or attempting to transmit to a foreign government information "relating to the national defense".[30] Prosecutor Roy Cohn, who would play a major role assisting Joseph McCarthy with his hearings as his chief counsel, later claimed that his influence led to both Kaufman and Saypol being appointed to the case, and that Kaufman imposed the death penalty based on Cohn's personal recommendation.[31]

In imposing the death penalty, Kaufman noted that he held the Rosenbergs responsible not only for espionage but also for the deaths of the Korean War:

I consider your crime worse than murder... I believe your conduct in putting into the hands of the Russians the A-Bomb years before our best scientists predicted Russia would perfect the bomb has already caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression in Korea, with the resultant casualties exceeding 50,000 and who knows but that millions more of innocent people may pay the price of your treason. Indeed, by your betrayal you undoubtedly have altered the course of history to the disadvantage of our country. No one can say that we do not live in a constant state of tension. We have evidence of your treachery all around us every day for the civilian defense activities throughout the nation are aimed at preparing us for an atom bomb attack.[32]

Julius Rosenberg claimed the case was a political frame-up.

This death sentence is not surprising. It had to be. There had to be a Rosenberg case, because there had to be an intensification of the hysteria in America to make the Korean War acceptable to the American people. There had to be hysteria and a fear sent through America in order to get increased war budgets. And there had to be a dagger thrust in the heart of the left to tell them that you are no longer gonna get five years for a Smith Act prosecution or one year for contempt of court, but we're gonna kill ya![33]

Campaign for clemency

After the publication of an investigative series in the National Guardian and the formation of the National Committee to Secure Justice in the Rosenberg Case, some Americans came to believe both Rosenbergs were innocent or received too harsh a punishment, and a grassroots campaign was started to try to stop the couple's execution. Between the trial and the executions there were widespread protests and claims of antisemitism; the charges of antisemitism were widely believed abroad, but not among the vast majority in the United States, where the Rosenbergs did not receive any support from mainstream Jewish organizations. The American Civil Liberties Union refused to acknowledge any violations of civil liberties in the case.[34]

Marxist (and later Nobel Prize-winning) existentialist philosopher and writer Jean-Paul Sartre called the trial "a legal lynching which smears with blood a whole nation. By killing the Rosenbergs, you have quite simply tried to halt the progress of science by human sacrifice. Magic, witch-hunts, autos-da-fé, sacrifices – we are here getting to the point: your country is sick with fear ... you are afraid of the shadow of your own bomb."[35] Others, including non-Communists such as Jean Cocteau, Albert Einstein and Nobel Prize–winning physical chemist Harold Urey,[36] as well as Communists or left-leaning artists such as Nelson Algren, Bertolt Brecht, Dashiell Hammett, Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, protested the position of the American government in what the French termed the US Dreyfus affair.[37] In May 1951, Pablo Picasso wrote for the communist French newspaper L'Humanité, "The hours count. The minutes count. Do not let this crime against humanity take place."[38] The all-black labor union International Longshoremen's Association Local 968 stopped working for a day in protest.[39] Cinema artists such as Fritz Lang registered their protest.[40] Pope Pius XII appealed to President Dwight D. Eisenhower to spare the couple, but Eisenhower refused on February 11, 1953, and all other appeals were also unsuccessful.[41][42]

Execution

Sing Sing Correctional Facility, where the Rosenbergs were executed

Because the United States Federal Bureau of Prisons did not operate an electric chair at the time, the Rosenbergs were transferred to the New York State-run Sing Sing Correctional Facility in Ossining for execution. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed in the electric chair at sundown on June 19, 1953.[43][44] The executioner was Joseph Francel, then the executioner of New York.

This was delayed from the originally scheduled date of June 18 because, on June 17, Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas had granted a stay of execution. That stay resulted from the intervention in the case by Fyke Farmer, a Tennessee lawyer whose efforts had previously been met with scorn from the Rosenbergs' attorney, Emanuel Hirsch Bloch.[45]

On June 18, the court was called back into special session to dispose of Douglas' stay rather than let the execution be delayed for months while the appeal that was the basis of the stay wended its way through the lower courts. The court did not vacate Douglas' stay until noon on Friday, June 19. Thus, the execution then was scheduled for 11 pm that evening, after the start of the Jewish Sabbath.[46] Desperately playing for more time, their lawyer, Bloch, filed a complaint that this offended their Jewish heritage. This argument was also made in front of Judge Kaufman by attorney Rhoda Laks, who was also part of the Rosenberg defense team.[47] The play backfired and the execution was rescheduled to before sunset, at 8 pm instead of the regular time of execution at Sing Sing of 11 pm.[48]

The Rosenbergs were executed separately, Julius first. He died after the first electric shock, but she did not. After the normal course of three electric shocks, attendants removed the strapping and other equipment only to have doctors determine that Ethel's heart was still beating. Two more electric shocks were applied, and at the conclusion eyewitnesses, Bob Considine among them, reported that smoke rose from her head.[49]

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were buried at Wellwood Cemetery, a Jewish cemetery in Pinelawn, New York.[46][50] The funeral services were held in Brooklyn on June 21. The Times reported that 500 people attended, while some 10,000 stood outside:[51]

The bodies had been brought from Sing Sing prison by the national "Rosenberg committee" which undertook the funeral arrangements, and an all-night vigil was held in one of the largest mortuary chapels in Brooklyn. Many hundreds of people filed past the biers. Most of them clearly regarded the Rosenbergs as martyred heroes and more than 500 mourners attended to-day's services, while a crowd estimated at 10,000 stood outside in burning heat. Mr. Bloch [their counsel], who delivered one of the main orations, bitterly exclaimed that America was "living under the heel of a military dictator garbed in civilian attire": the Rosenbergs were "Sweet. Tender. And intelligent" and the course they took was one of "courage and heroism".

The Rosenbergs were the only two American civilians to be executed for espionage-related activity during the Cold War.[52] The then Deputy Attorney General of the United States William P. Rogers, when later asked about the death sentence imposed on Ethel in an effort to extract a full confession from Julius, reportedly said, "She called our bluff."[53]

Soviet nuclear program

Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, vice-chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, investigated how much the Soviet spy ring helped the USSR to build their bomb. In 1945, Moynihan found, physicist Hans Bethe estimated that the Soviets would be able to build their own bomb in five years. "Thanks to information provided by their agents", Moynihan wrote in his book Secrecy, "they did it in four".[54] In his posthumously published memoirs, Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, said that he "cannot specifically say what kind of help the Rosenbergs provided us" but that he learned from Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov that they "had provided very significant help in accelerating the production of our atomic bomb".[55] However Boris V. Brokhovich, the engineer who later became director of Chelyabinsk-40, the plutonium production reactor and extraction facility that the Soviet Union used to create its first bomb material, called Khrushchev a 'silly fool' and claimed the development of the bomb had been a matter of trial and error. "You sat the Rosenbergs in the electric chair for nothing," he said. "We got nothing from the Rosenbergs."[56] The notes allegedly typed by Ethel apparently contained little that was directly used in the Soviet atomic bomb project.[57] According to Alexander Feklisov, the former Soviet agent who was Julius' contact, the Rosenbergs did not provide the Soviet Union with any useful material about the atomic bomb: "He [Julius] didn't understand anything about the atomic bomb and he couldn't help us."[58]

Later developments

Venona

In 1995, the results of the Venona decryption project were released by the U.S. government, clearly showing Julius Rosenberg's role as the leader of a productive ring of spies.[59] They show Ethel's role was more limited, but that she hid money and espionage paraphernalia for Julius, served as an intermediary for communications with his Soviet intelligence contacts, provided her personal evaluation of individuals Julius considered recruiting, and was present at meetings with his sources. They also demonstrate that Julius reported to the KGB that Ethel persuaded Ruth Greenglass to travel to New Mexico to recruit David as a spy.[60]

David and Ruth Greenglass

David Greenglass, Ethel Rosenberg's brother and key prosecution witness, recanted his testimony about his sister having typed the notes. In 2001 he stated, "I frankly think my wife did the typing, but I don't remember."[61] He said he gave false testimony to protect himself and his wife, Ruth, and that he was encouraged by the prosecution to do so; "My wife is more important to me than my sister. Or my mother or my father, O.K.? And she was the mother of my children."[61] He refused to express any remorse for his decision to betray his sister, saying only that he did not realize that the death penalty would be invoked.[52] He stated, "I would not sacrifice my wife and my children for my sister."[52] In September 2008, hundreds of pages of grand jury transcripts were released. With this release, it was revealed that Ruth Greenglass had irreconcilable differences between her grand jury testimony of August 1950 and the testimony she gave at trial. At the grand jury, Ruth Greenglass was asked, "Didn't you write [the information] down on a piece of paper?"[62] She replied, "Yes, I wrote [the information] down on a piece of paper and [Julius Rosenberg] took it with him."[62] But at the trial, she testified that Ethel Rosenberg typed up notes about the atomic bomb.[62]

Morton Sobell (left), Marshall Perlin, Robert Meeropol, Franz Loeser, April 19, 1976.

Morton Sobell

In 2008, after many years of denial, Morton Sobell finally admitted he was a Soviet spy and confirmed Julius Rosenberg was "in a conspiracy that delivered to the Soviets classified military and industrial information ... [on] the atomic bomb", and that, "He never told me about anything else that he was engaged in."[63] However, he stated that he thought the hand-drawn diagrams and other atomic-bomb details that were acquired by David Greenglass and passed to Julius were of "little value" to the Soviet Union, and were used only to corroborate what they had already learned from the other atomic spies.[63] He also stated that he believed Ethel Rosenberg was aware of her husband's deeds, but took no part in them.[63] In a subsequent letter to The New York Times, Sobell denied that he knew anything about Julius Rosenberg's alleged atomic espionage activities – that the only thing he knew for sure was what he himself did in association with Julius Rosenberg.[64]

The Rosenbergs' children

The Rosenbergs' two sons, Michael Meeropol and Robert Meeropol, spent years trying to prove the innocence of their parents. They were orphaned by the executions and no relatives adopted them. They were adopted by the high school teacher, poet, songwriter and social activist Abel Meeropol (author of the popular song 'Strange Fruit') and his wife Anne, and they assumed the Meeropol surname. After Morton Sobell's 2008 confession, they acknowledged their father had been involved in espionage, but said that "whatever atomic bomb information their father passed to the Russians was, at best, superfluous; the case was riddled with prosecutorial and judicial misconduct; their mother was convicted on flimsy evidence to place leverage on her husband; and neither deserved the death penalty."[65]

Michael and Robert co-wrote a book about their and their parents' lives, We Are Your Sons: The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1975). Robert wrote a later memoir, An Execution in the Family: One Son's Journey (2003). In 1990, he founded the Rosenberg Fund for Children, a nonprofit foundation that provides support for children of targeted liberal activists, and youth who are targeted activists.[66] Michael has recently retired as the Chair and Professor of Economics, School of Arts and Sciences, Economics at Western New England College in Springfield, Massachusetts. Michael's daughter, Ivy Meeropol, directed a 2004 documentary about her grandparents, Heir to an Execution, which was featured at the Sundance Film Festival.[67]

Campaign for the exoneration of Ethel Rosenberg

In 2015, following the most recent grand jury transcript release, the Rosenbergs' sons, Michael and Robert Meeropol[68] called on the Obama administration to acknowledge that Ethel Rosenberg's conviction and execution was wrongful, and issue a proclamation to exonerate her. Similarly, on September 28, 2015, the 100th anniversary of Ethel's birth, 11 members of the New York City Council issued a proclamation stating that "the government wrongfully executed Ethel Rosenberg", and Manhattan Borough President Gale Brewer officially recognized, "the injustice suffered by Ethel Rosenberg and her family", and declared it, "Ethel Rosenberg Day of Justice in the Borough of Manhattan". In March 2016, Michael and Robert (via the Rosenberg Fund for Children) launched a petition campaign calling on President Barack Obama and Attorney General Loretta Lynch to formally exonerate Ethel Rosenberg before they leave office in January 2017.[69] In October 2016, the CBS news show 60 Minutes presented the story of the Rosenbergs' children who are seeking a proclamation from President Barack Obama that their mother's conviction was unjust and her execution was wrongful. [70]

Artistic representations

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Radosh, Ronald (10 June 2016). "Rosenbergs Redux".
  2. ↑ "What the K.G.B. Files Show About Ethel Rosenberg". The New York Times. Aug 13, 2015.
  3. ↑ Ranzal, Edward (March 19, 1953). "Greenglass, in Prison, Vows to Kin He Told Truth About Rosenbergs". The New York Times. Retrieved July 7, 2008. David Greenglass, serving 15 years as a confessed atom spy, denied to members of his family recently that he had been coached by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the drawing of segments of the atom bomb.
  4. ↑ Whitman, Alden (February 14, 1974). "1972 Death of Harry Gold Revealed". The New York Times. Retrieved July 7, 2008. Harry Gold, who served 15 years in Federal prison as a confessed atomic spy courier, for Klaus Fuchs, a Soviet agent, and who was a key Government witness in the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg espionage case in 1951, died 18 months ago in Philadelphia.
  5. ↑ Meeropol, Michael; Meeropol, Robert (10 August 2015). "The Meeropol Brothers: Exonerate Our Mother, Ethel Rosenberg". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  6. ↑ Radosh, Ronald; Klehr, Harvey; Haynes, John Earl; Hornblum, Allen M.; Usdin, Steven (17 October 2014). "The New York Times Gets Greenglass Wrong". Weekly Standard. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  7. ↑ Radosh, Ronald (10 June 2016). "Rosenbergs Redux".
  8. ↑ Ph.D, Frankie Y. Bailey; Ph.D, Steven Chermak. Crimes and Trials of the Century [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 205. ISBN 9781573569736. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  9. ↑ Dershowitz, Alan M. America on Trial: Inside the Legal Battles That Transformed Our Nation. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 9780759511033. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  10. ↑ DERSHOWITZ, ALAN M. (19 July 1995). "Rosenbergs Were Guilty – and Framed : FBI, Justice Department and judiciary conspired to convict a couple accused of espionage.". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  11. ↑ Denison, Charles and Chuck (2004). The Great American Songbook. Author's Choice Publishing. p. 45. ISBN 1-931741-42-5.
  12. ↑ Martin J. Manning and Clarence R. Wyatt, eds. Encyclopedia of Media and Propaganda in Wartime America, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 753.
  13. ↑ Wang, Jessica (1999). American science in an age of anxiety. UNC Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-8078-4749-7.
  14. 1 2 3 Feklisov, Aleksandr; Sergei Kostin (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. ISBN 1-929631-08-1.
  15. ↑ Feklisov, Aleksandr; Sergei Kostin (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. pp. 140–47. ISBN 1-929631-08-1.
  16. ↑ Radosh, Ronald (6 December 2010). "Rosenbergs Redux". New Republic. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  17. ↑ Haynes, John Earl. Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America. Yale University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0300155727. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  18. ↑ Ziegler, Charles A.; Jacobson, David (1995). Spying without spies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-275-95049-1.
  19. ↑ Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg file. Yale University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-300-07205-1.
  20. ↑ Theoharis, Athan G. (1999). The FBI: a comprehensive reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-0-89774-991-6.
  21. ↑ Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey. Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 9781139460248.
  22. 1 2 Neville, John F. (1995). The Press, the Rosenbergs, and the Cold War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-275-94995-2.
  23. ↑ Sol Stern and Ronald Radosh, The New Republic (June 23, 1979)
  24. ↑ John Simkin. "Ethel Rosenberg". Spartacus Educational Publishers Ltd.
  25. ↑ "Plot to Have G.I. Give Bomb Data to Soviet Is Laid to His Sister Here". The New York Times. August 12, 1950. pp. 1, 30.
  26. ↑ "The Atom Spy Case". Famous Cases and Criminals. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
  27. ↑ Jenkins, John Philip. "Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg (American spies) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  28. ↑ "Milestones, February 8, 1954". Time. February 8, 1954. Retrieved June 21, 2008.
  29. ↑ Roberts, Sam (2003). The Brother: the Untold Story of the Rosenberg Case. Random House. pp. 403–07. ISBN 978-0-375-76124-9. On February 28, 1945, the NKVD submitted to Lavrenti Beria a comprehensive report on nuclear weaponry, including implosion research, based chiefly on intelligence from Hall and Greenglass.
  30. ↑ Huberich, Charles Henry (1918). The law relating to trading with the enemy. Baker, Voorhis & Company. p. 349.
  31. ↑ The Rosenberg file, By Ronald Radosh, Joyce Milton. p. 278
  32. ↑ "Judge Kaufman's Statement Upon Sentencing the Rosenbergs". University of Missouri–Kansas City. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
  33. ↑ "Fifty years since the execution of the Rosenbergs". World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
  34. ↑ Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg File. Yale University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-300-07205-1.
  35. ↑ Schneir, Walter (1983). Invitation to an Inquest. Pantheon Books. p. 254. ISBN 0-394-71496-2.
  36. ↑ Feklisov, Aleksandr; Kostine, Sergei (2001). The man behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-929631-08-7. The great physicists Albert Einstein and Harold Urey asked President Truman to pardon the couple.
  37. ↑ Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg File. Yale University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-300-07205-1. But it was the apparent parallel with France's own Dreyfus case that touched the deepest chords in the national psyche.
  38. ↑ Schulte, Elizabeth (May–June 2003). "The trial of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg". International Socialist Review. Retrieved October 5, 2008.
  39. ↑ "Unions throughout U.S. joining in plea to save the Rosenbergs". Daily Worker. January 15, 1953.
  40. ↑ Sharp, Malcolm P. (1956). Was Justice Done? The Rosenberg-Sobell Case. Monthly Review Press. p. 132. 56-10953.
  41. ↑ Schrecker, Ellen (1998). Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Little, Brown and Company. p. 137. ISBN 0-316-77470-7.
  42. ↑ Cortes, Arnaldo (February 14, 1953). "Pope Made Appeal to Aid Rosenbergs.". The New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2008. Pope Pius XII appealed to the United States Government for clemency in the Rosenberg atomic spy case, the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano revealed today.
  43. ↑ "50 years later, Rosenberg execution is still fresh". USA Today. Associated Press. June 17, 2003. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
  44. ↑ "Execution of the Rosenbergs". The Guardian. London. June 20, 1953. Retrieved June 24, 2008. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed early this morning at Sing Sing Prison for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia in World War II
  45. ↑ Wood, E. Thomas (June 17, 2007). "Nashville now and then: A lawyer's last gamble". Nashville Post. Retrieved August 8, 2007. Farmer, working at no charge against the opposition of not only the government but also the Rosenbergs' legal team, had showed up at Douglas's chambers without an appointment, on the day after the high court adjourned for the term. Farmer convinced the jurist that the Rosenbergs had been tried under an invalid law. If they could be charged with any crime, he asserted, it would have to be a violation of the Atomic Energy Act, which did not carry a death penalty, rather than the Espionage Act of 1917.
  46. 1 2 Haberman, Clyde (June 20, 2003). "Executed At Sundown, 50 Years Ago.". The New York Times. Retrieved June 23, 2008. Rosenberg. One more name out of thousands, representing all those souls on their journey through forever at Wellwood Cemetery, along the border between Nassau and Suffolk Counties... Usually at Sing Sing, the death penalty was carried out at 11 pm. But that June 19 was a Friday, and 11 pm would have pushed the executions well into the Jewish Sabbath, which begins at sundown. The federal judge in Manhattan who sentenced them to death, Irving R. Kaufman, said that the very idea of a Sabbath execution gave him 'considerable concern'. The Justice Department agreed. So the time was pushed forward.
  47. ↑ Ronald Radosh; Joyce Milton (1997). The Rosenberg File. Yale University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780300072051.
  48. ↑ Roberts, Sam (2003). The Brother: the untold story of the Rosenberg case. Random House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-375-76124-9. (According to Orthodox tradition, the Sabbath begins eighteen minutes before sunset Friday and ends the following evening.)
  49. ↑ Philipson, Ilene (1993). Ethel Rosenber: Beyond the Myths. Rutgers University Press. pp. 351–52. ISBN 978-0-8135-1917-3.
  50. ↑ Ethel Rosenberg at Find a Grave; Julius Rosenberg at Find a Grave
  51. ↑ "Funeral Tributes To Rosenbergs: Execution Denounced". The Times. London. June 21, 1953.(subscription required)
  52. 1 2 3 "False testimony clinched Rosenberg spy trial". BBC News. December 6, 2001. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
  53. ↑ Roberts, Sam (June 26, 2008). "Spies and Secrecy". The New York Times. Retrieved June 27, 2008. No, he replied, the goal wasn't to kill the couple. The strategy was to use the death sentence imposed on Ethel to wring a full confession from Julius – in hopes that Ethel's motherly instincts would trump unconditional loyalty to a noble but discredited cause. What went wrong? Rogers's explanation still haunts me. 'She called our bluff' he said.
  54. ↑ Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Secrecy (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1999), 143–44.
  55. ↑ Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, translated and edited by Jerrold L Schecter with Vyacheslav V Luchkov, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1990, p. 194.
  56. ↑ McFadden, Robert (September 25, 2008). "Khrushchev on Rosenbergs: Stoking Old Embers". The New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2008. Nearly four decades after Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for conspiring to pass America's atomic bomb secrets to the Soviet Union, the case that has haunted scholars, historians and partisans of the left and the right has found a new witness: Nikita S. Khrushchev.
  57. ↑ Roberts, Sam (2001). The Brother: The Untold Story of the Rosenberg Case. Random House. pp. 425–26, 432. ISBN 0-375-76124-1.
  58. ↑ Stanley, Alessandra (16 March 1997). "K.G.B. Agent Plays Down Atomic Role Of Rosenbergs". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  59. ↑ Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey. Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0300084625. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  60. ↑ Radosh, Ronald; Klehr, Harvey; Haynes, John Earl; Hornblum, Allen M.; Usdin, Steven (17 October 2014). "The New York Times Gets Greenglass Wrong". Weekly Standard. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  61. 1 2 Robert D. McFadden (Oct 14, 2014). "David Greenglass, the Brother Who Doomed Ethel Rosenberg, Dies at 92". The New York Times.
  62. 1 2 3 Watt, Holly (September 12, 2008). "Witness Changed Her Story During Rosenberg Spy Case". The Washington Post.
  63. 1 2 3 Roberts, Sam (September 12, 2008). "For First Time, Figure in Rosenberg Case Admits Spying for Soviets". The New York Times. Retrieved May 7, 2010. Sobell, who served nearly 19 years in Alcatraz and other federal prisons, admitted for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.
  64. ↑ Morton Sobell (September 19, 2008). "Letter: The Rosenberg Case". The New York Times.
  65. ↑ Roberts, Sam (September 16, 2008). "Father Was a Spy, Sons Conclude With Regret". The New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2008. Now, confronted with the surprising confession last week of Morton Sobell, Julius Rosenberg's City College classmate and co-defendant, the brothers have admitted to a painful conclusion: that their father was a spy.
  66. ↑ "My Parents Were Executed Under the Unconstitutional Espionage Act". Democracy Now!. December 30, 2010. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
  67. ↑ "Sundance: Heir To An Execution". CBS News. January 20, 2004. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
  68. ↑ "The Meeropol Brothers: Exonerate Our Mother, Ethel Rosenberg". The New York Times. August 10, 2015. Retrieved April 9, 2016.
  69. ↑ "Exonerate our Mother, Ethel Rosenberg". Rosenberg Fund for Children. March 1, 2016. Retrieved April 9, 2016.
  70. ↑ "The Brothers rosenberghttp://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-brothers-rosenberg-cold-war-spying/". External link in |title= (help)
  71. ↑ Ethel Rosenberg at the Internet Movie Database
  72. ↑ "The Bell Jar: Essay Q&A". Novelguide.com. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  73. ↑ Rosenberg Memorial, Havana

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