Attribution of recent climate change

PDF of fraction of surface temperature trends since 1950 attributable to human activity, based on IPCC AR5 10.5
This graph is known as the Keeling Curve and shows the long-term increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations from 1958–2015. Monthly CO2 measurements display seasonal oscillations in an upward trend. Each year's maximum occurs during the Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants remove some atmospheric CO2.
Refer to caption
Global annual average temperature; year-to-year fluctuations are due to natural processes, such as the effects of El Niños, La Niñas, and the eruption of large volcanoes.[1]
Refer to caption
This image shows three examples of internal climate variability measured between 1950 and 2012: the El Niño–Southern oscillation, the Arctic oscillation, and the North Atlantic oscillation.[2]

Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth, commonly known as 'global warming'. The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record, when records are most reliable; particularly in the last 50 years, when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available. The dominant mechanisms (to which the IPCC attributes climate change) are anthropogenic, i.e., the result of human activity. They are:[3]

There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations, changes in solar activity, and volcanic activity.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it is "extremely likely" that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010.[4] The IPCC defines "extremely likely" as indicating a probability of 95 to 100%, based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence.[5]

Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities:[6]

The IPCC's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by most scientists,[7][8] "Most scientists agree that the warming in recent decades has been caused primarily by human activities that have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [...]" (page 2).[9] and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide[10] (see also: scientific opinion on climate change).

Background

This section introduces some concepts in climate science that are used in the following sections:

Factors affecting Earth's climate can be broken down into feedbacks and forcings.[8]:7 A forcing is something that is imposed externally on the climate system. External forcings include natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and variations in the sun's output.[11] Human activities can also impose forcings, for example, through changing the composition of the atmosphere.

Radiative forcing is a measure of how various factors alter the energy balance of the Earth's atmosphere.[12] A positive radiative forcing will tend to increase the energy of the Earth-atmosphere system, leading to a warming of the system. Between the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, and the year 2005, the increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO2) led to a positive radiative forcing, averaged over the Earth's surface area, of about 1.66 watts per square metre (abbreviated W m−2).[13]

Climate feedbacks can either amplify or dampen the response of the climate to a given forcing.[8]:7 There are many feedback mechanisms in the climate system that can either amplify (a positive feedback) or diminish (a negative feedback) the effects of a change in climate forcing.

Aspects of the climate system will show variation in response to changes in forcings.[14] In the absence of forcings imposed on it, the climate system will still show internal variability (see images opposite). This internal variability is a result of complex interactions between components of the climate system, such as the coupling between the atmosphere and ocean (see also the later section on Internal climate variability and global warming).[15] An example of internal variability is the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

Detection vs. attribution

Refer to caption and adjacent text
In detection and attribution, the natural factors considered usually include changes in the Sun's output and volcanic eruptions, as well as natural modes of variability such as El Niño and La Niña. Human factors include the emissions of heat-trapping "greenhouse" gases and particulates as well as clearing of forests and other land-use changes. Figure source: NOAA NCDC.[16]

Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC.[17] Detection of a climate signal does not always imply significant attribution. The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report says "it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750," where "extremely likely" indicates a probability greater than 95%.[3] Detection of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different from that which can be explained by natural internal variability.

Attribution requires demonstrating that a signal is:

Key attributions

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that is contributing to recent climate change.[18] CO
2 is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the carbon cycle, through animal and plant respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean-atmosphere exchange.[18] Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use (see below), release large amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, causing CO
2 concentrations in the atmosphere to rise.[18][19]

The high-accuracy measurements of atmospheric CO2 concentration, initiated by Charles David Keeling in 1958, constitute the master time series documenting the changing composition of the atmosphere.[20] These data have iconic status in climate change science as evidence of the effect of human activities on the chemical composition of the global atmosphere.[20]

Along with CO2, methane and nitrous oxide are also major forcing contributors to the greenhouse effect. The Kyoto Protocol lists these together with hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),[21] which are entirely artificial (i.e. anthropogenic) gases, which also contribute to radiative forcing in the atmosphere. The chart at right attributes anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to eight main economic sectors, of which the largest contributors are power stations (many of which burn coal or other fossil fuels), industrial processes, transportation fuels (generally fossil fuels), and agricultural by-products (mainly methane from enteric fermentation and nitrous oxide from fertilizer use).[22]

Water vapor

Refer to adjacent text
Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research version 3.2, fast track 2000 project

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and also the most important in terms of its contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime[18] (about 10 days).[23] Some human activities can influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration of water vapor is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and precipitation.[18] Therefore, the global concentration of water vapor is not substantially affected by direct human emissions.[18]

Land use

Climate change is attributed to land use for two main reasons. Between 1750 and 2007, about two-thirds of anthropogenic CO2 emissions were produced from burning fossil fuels, and about one-third of emissions from changes in land use,[24] primarily deforestation.[25] Deforestation both reduces the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by deforested regions and releases greenhouse gases directly, together with aerosols, through biomass burning that frequently accompanies it.

A second reason that climate change has been attributed to land use is that the terrestrial albedo is often altered by use, which leads to radiative forcing. This effect is more significant locally than globally.[25]

Livestock and land use

Worldwide, livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the ice-free land surface of the Earth.[26] More than 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are attributed to livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices.[26] Specific attributions to the livestock sector include:

Aerosols

With virtual certainty, scientific consensus has attributed various forms of climate change, chiefly cooling effects, to aerosols, which are small particles or droplets suspended in the atmosphere.[27] Key sources to which anthropogenic aerosols are attributed[28] include:

Attribution of 20th century climate change

Refer to caption
One global climate model's reconstruction of temperature change during the 20th century as the result of five studied forcing factors and the amount of temperature change attributed to each.

Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming. Other human effects are relevant—for example, sulphate aerosols are believed to have a cooling effect. Natural factors also contribute. According to the historical temperature record of the last century, the Earth's near-surface air temperature has risen around 0.74 ± 0.18 °Celsius (1.3 ± 0.32 °Fahrenheit).[29]

A historically important question in climate change research has regarded the relative importance of human activity and non-anthropogenic causes during the period of instrumental record. In the 1995 Second Assessment Report (SAR), the IPCC made the widely quoted statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate". The phrase "balance of evidence" suggested the (English) common-law standard of proof required in civil as opposed to criminal courts: not as high as "beyond reasonable doubt". In 2001 the Third Assessment Report (TAR) refined this, saying "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities".[30] The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) strengthened this finding:

Other findings of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report include:

Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0.65 °C (1.17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record). Among the possible factors that could produce changes in global mean temperature are internal variability of the climate system, external forcing, an increase in concentration of greenhouse gases, or any combination of these. Current studies indicate that the increase in greenhouse gases, most notably CO2, is mostly responsible for the observed warming. Evidence for this conclusion includes:

Details on attribution

refer to caption and adjacent text
For Northern Hemisphere temperature, recent decades appear to be the warmest since at least about 1000AD, and the warming since the late 19th century is unprecedented over the last 1000 years.[37] Older data are insufficient to provide reliable hemispheric temperature estimates.[37]

Recent scientific assessments find that most of the warming of the Earth's surface over the past 50 years has been caused by human activities (see also the section on scientific literature and opinion). This conclusion rests on multiple lines of evidence. Like the warming "signal" that has gradually emerged from the "noise" of natural climate variability, the scientific evidence for a human influence on global climate has accumulated over the past several decades, from many hundreds of studies. No single study is a "smoking gun." Nor has any single study or combination of studies undermined the large body of evidence supporting the conclusion that human activity is the primary driver of recent warming.[1]

The first line of evidence is based on a physical understanding of how greenhouse gases trap heat, how the climate system responds to increases in greenhouse gases, and how other human and natural factors influence climate. The second line of evidence is from indirect estimates of climate changes over the last 1,000 to 2,000 years. These records are obtained from living things and their remains (like tree rings and corals) and from physical quantities (like the ratio between lighter and heavier isotopes of oxygen in ice cores), which change in measurable ways as climate changes. The lesson from these data is that global surface temperatures over the last several decades are clearly unusual, in that they were higher than at any time during at least the past 400 years. For the Northern Hemisphere, the recent temperature rise is clearly unusual in at least the last 1,000 years (see graph opposite).[1]

The third line of evidence is based on the broad, qualitative consistency between observed changes in climate and the computer model simulations of how climate would be expected to change in response to human activities. For example, when climate models are run with historical increases in greenhouse gases, they show gradual warming of the Earth and ocean surface, increases in ocean heat content and the temperature of the lower atmosphere, a rise in global sea level, retreat of sea ice and snow cover, cooling of the stratosphere, an increase in the amount of atmospheric water vapor, and changes in large-scale precipitation and pressure patterns. These and other aspects of modelled climate change are in agreement with observations.[1]

"Fingerprint" studies

Refer to caption
Reconstructions of global temperature that include greenhouse gas increases and other human influences (red line, based on many models) closely match measured temperatures (dashed line).[38] Those that only include natural influences (blue line, based on many models) show a slight cooling, which has not occurred.[38] The ability of models to generate reasonable histories of global temperature is verified by their response to four 20th-century volcanic eruptions: each eruption caused brief cooling that appeared in observed as well as modeled records.[38]

Finally, there is extensive statistical evidence from so-called "fingerprint" studies. Each factor that affects climate produces a unique pattern of climate response, much as each person has a unique fingerprint. Fingerprint studies exploit these unique signatures, and allow detailed comparisons of modelled and observed climate change patterns. Scientists rely on such studies to attribute observed changes in climate to a particular cause or set of causes. In the real world, the climate changes that have occurred since the start of the Industrial Revolution are due to a complex mixture of human and natural causes. The importance of each individual influence in this mixture changes over time. Of course, there are not multiple Earths, which would allow an experimenter to change one factor at a time on each Earth, thus helping to isolate different fingerprints. Therefore, climate models are used to study how individual factors affect climate. For example, a single factor (like greenhouse gases) or a set of factors can be varied, and the response of the modelled climate system to these individual or combined changes can thus be studied.[1]

refer to caption
key to above map of temperature changes
Two fingerprints of human activities on the climate are that land areas will warm more than the oceans, and that high latitudes will warm more than low latitudes.[39] These projections have been confirmed by observations (shown above).[39]

For example, when climate model simulations of the last century include all of the major influences on climate, both human-induced and natural, they can reproduce many important features of observed climate change patterns. When human influences are removed from the model experiments, results suggest that the surface of the Earth would actually have cooled slightly over the last 50 years (see graph, opposite). The clear message from fingerprint studies is that the observed warming over the last half-century cannot be explained by natural factors, and is instead caused primarily by human factors.[1]

Another fingerprint of human effects on climate has been identified by looking at a slice through the layers of the atmosphere, and studying the pattern of temperature changes from the surface up through the stratosphere (see the section on solar activity). The earliest fingerprint work focused on changes in surface and atmospheric temperature. Scientists then applied fingerprint methods to a whole range of climate variables, identifying human-caused climate signals in the heat content of the oceans, the height of the tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, which has shifted upward by hundreds of feet in recent decades), the geographical patterns of precipitation, drought, surface pressure, and the runoff from major river basins.[1]

Studies published after the appearance of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 have also found human fingerprints in the increased levels of atmospheric moisture (both close to the surface and over the full extent of the atmosphere), in the decline of Arctic sea ice extent, and in the patterns of changes in Arctic and Antarctic surface temperatures.[1]

The message from this entire body of work is that the climate system is telling a consistent story of increasingly dominant human influence – the changes in temperature, ice extent, moisture, and circulation patterns fit together in a physically consistent way, like pieces in a complex puzzle.[1]

Increasingly, this type of fingerprint work is shifting its emphasis. As noted, clear and compelling scientific evidence supports the case for a pronounced human influence on global climate. Much of the recent attention is now on climate changes at continental and regional scales, and on variables that can have large impacts on societies. For example, scientists have established causal links between human activities and the changes in snowpack, maximum and minimum (diurnal) temperature, and the seasonal timing of runoff over mountainous regions of the western United States. Human activity is likely to have made a substantial contribution to ocean surface temperature changes in hurricane formation regions. Researchers are also looking beyond the physical climate system, and are beginning to tie changes in the distribution and seasonal behaviour of plant and animal species to human-caused changes in temperature and precipitation.[1]

For over a decade, one aspect of the climate change story seemed to show a significant difference between models and observations. In the tropics, all models predicted that with a rise in greenhouse gases, the troposphere would be expected to warm more rapidly than the surface. Observations from weather balloons, satellites, and surface thermometers seemed to show the opposite behaviour (more rapid warming of the surface than the troposphere). This issue was a stumbling block in understanding the causes of climate change. It is now largely resolved. Research showed that there were large uncertainties in the satellite and weather balloon data. When uncertainties in models and observations are properly accounted for, newer observational data sets (with better treatment of known problems) are in agreement with climate model results.[1]

Refer to caption
This set of graphs shows the estimated contribution of various natural and human factors to changes in global mean temperature between 1889–2006.[40] Estimated contributions are based on multivariate analysis rather than model simulations.[41] The graphs show that human influence on climate has eclipsed the magnitude of natural temperature changes over the past 120 years.[42] Natural influences on temperature—El Niño, solar variability, and volcanic aerosols—have varied approximately plus and minus 0.2 °C (0.4 °F), (averaging to about zero), while human influences have contributed roughly 0.8 °C (1 °F) of warming since 1889.[42]

This does not mean, however, that all remaining differences between models and observations have been resolved. The observed changes in some climate variables, such as Arctic sea ice, some aspects of precipitation, and patterns of surface pressure, appear to be proceeding much more rapidly than models have projected. The reasons for these differences are not well understood. Nevertheless, the bottom-line conclusion from climate fingerprinting is that most of the observed changes studied to date are consistent with each other, and are also consistent with our scientific understanding of how the climate system would be expected to respond to the increase in heat-trapping gases resulting from human activities.[1]

Extreme weather events

refer to caption
Frequency of occurrence (vertical axis) of local June–July–August temperature anomalies (relative to 1951–1980 mean) for Northern Hemisphere land in units of local standard deviation (horizontal axis).[43] According to Hansen et al. (2012),[43] the distribution of anomalies has shifted to the right as a consequence of global warming, meaning that unusually hot summers have become more common. This is analogous to the rolling of a dice: cool summers now cover only half of one side of a six-sided die, white covers one side, red covers four sides, and an extremely hot (red-brown) anomaly covers half of one side.[43]

One of the subjects discussed in the literature is whether or not extreme weather events can be attributed to human activities. Seneviratne et al. (2012)[44] stated that attributing individual extreme weather events to human activities was challenging. They were, however, more confident over attributing changes in long-term trends of extreme weather. For example, Seneviratne et al. (2012)[45] concluded that human activities had likely led to a warming of extreme daily minimum and maximum temperatures at the global scale.

Another way of viewing the problem is to consider the effects of human-induced climate change on the probability of future extreme weather events. Stott et al. (2003),[46] for example, considered whether or not human activities had increased the risk of severe heat waves in Europe, like the one experienced in 2003. Their conclusion was that human activities had very likely more than doubled the risk of heat waves of this magnitude.[46]

An analogy can be made between an athlete on steroids and human-induced climate change.[47] In the same way that an athlete's performance may increase from using steroids, human-induced climate change increases the risk of some extreme weather events.

Hansen et al. (2012)[48] suggested that human activities have greatly increased the risk of summertime heat waves. According to their analysis, the land area of the Earth affected by very hot summer temperature anomalies has greatly increased over time (refer to graphs on the left). In the base period 1951-1980, these anomalies covered a few tenths of 1% of the global land area.[49] In recent years, this has increased to around 10% of the global land area. With high confidence, Hansen et al. (2012)[49] attributed the 2010 Moscow and 2011 Texas heat waves to human-induced global warming.

An earlier study by Dole et al. (2011)[50] concluded that the 2010 Moscow heatwave was mostly due to natural weather variability. While not directly citing Dole et al. (2011),[50] Hansen et al. (2012)[49] rejected this type of explanation. Hansen et al. (2012)[49] stated that a combination of natural weather variability and human-induced global warming was responsible for the Moscow and Texas heat waves.

Scientific literature and opinion

There are a number of examples of published and informal support for the consensus view. As mentioned earlier, the IPCC has concluded that most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is "very likely" due to human activities.[51] The IPCC's conclusions are consistent with those of several reports produced by the US National Research Council.[7][52][53] A report published in 2009 by the U.S. Global Change Research Program concluded that "[global] warming is unequivocal and primarily human-induced."[54] A number of scientific organizations have issued statements that support the consensus view. Two examples include:

Detection and attribution studies

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (2007), concluded that attribution was possible for a number of observed changes in the climate (see effects of global warming). However, attribution was found to be more difficult when assessing changes over smaller regions (less than continental scale) and over short time periods (less than 50 years).[33] Over larger regions, averaging reduces natural variability of the climate, making detection and attribution easier.

Reviews of scientific opinion

As described above, a small minority of scientists do disagree with the consensus: see list of scientists opposing global warming consensus. For example, Willie Soon and Richard Lindzen[67] say that there is insufficient proof for anthropogenic attribution. Generally this position requires new physical mechanisms to explain the observed warming.[68]

Solar activity

Refer to caption
Solar radiation at the top of our atmosphere, and global temperature
Modelled simulation of the effect of various factors (including GHGs, Solar irradiance) singly and in combination, showing in particular that solar activity produces a small and nearly uniform warming, unlike what is observed.

Solar sunspot maximum occurs when the magnetic field of the sun collapses and reverse as part of its average 11 year solar cycle (22 years for complete North to North restoration).

The role of the sun in recent climate change has been looked at by climate scientists. Since 1978, output from the Sun has been measured by satellites[8]:6 significantly more accurately than was previously possible from the surface. These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance has not increased since 1978, so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be directly attributed to an increase in total solar energy reaching the Earth (see graph above, left). In the three decades since 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity probably had a slight cooling influence on the climate.[69]

Climate models have been used to examine the role of the sun in recent climate change.[70] Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only take into account variations in total solar irradiance and volcanic activity. Models are, however, able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings, including human influences and natural forcings. As has already been stated, Hegerl et al. (2007) concluded that greenhouse gas forcing had "very likely" caused most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century. In making this conclusion, Hegerl et al. (2007) allowed for the possibility that climate models had been underestimated the effect of solar forcing.[71]

The role of solar activity in climate change has also been calculated over longer time periods using "proxy" datasets, such as tree rings.[72] Models indicate that solar and volcanic forcings can explain periods of relative warmth and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900, but human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming.[73]

Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.[74] Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere).[75] Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen.[76] The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude. Hadley cells are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.[77]

Non-consensus views

Refer to caption
Contribution of natural factors and human activities to radiative forcing of climate change.[13] Radiative forcing values are for the year 2005, relative to the pre-industrial era (1750).[13] The contribution of solar irradiance to radiative forcing is 5% the value of the combined radiative forcing due to increases in the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.[78]

Habibullo Abdussamatov (2004), head of space research at St. Petersburg's Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory in Russia, has argued that the sun is responsible for recently observed climate change.[79] Journalists for news sources canada.com (Solomon, 2007b),[80] National Geographic News (Ravillious, 2007),[81] and LiveScience (Than, 2007)[82] reported on the story of warming on Mars. In these articles, Abdussamatov was quoted. He stated that warming on Mars was evidence that global warming on Earth was being caused by changes in the sun.

Ravillious (2007)[81] quoted two scientists who disagreed with Abdussamatov: Amato Evan, a climate scientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, in the US, and Colin Wilson, a planetary physicist at Oxford University in the UK. According to Wilson, "Wobbles in the orbit of Mars are the main cause of its climate change in the current era" (see also orbital forcing).[83] Than (2007) quoted Charles Long, a climate physicist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratories in the US, who disagreed with Abdussamatov.[82]

Than (2007) pointed to the view of Benny Peiser, a social anthropologist at Liverpool John Moores University in the UK.[82] In his newsletter, Peiser had cited a blog that had commented on warming observed on several planetary bodies in the Solar system. These included Neptune's moon Triton,[84] Jupiter,[85] Pluto[86] and Mars. In an e-mail interview with Than (2007), Peiser stated that:

"I think it is an intriguing coincidence that warming trends have been observed on a number of very diverse planetary bodies in our solar system, (...) Perhaps this is just a fluke."

Than (2007) provided alternative explanations of why warming had occurred on Triton, Pluto, Jupiter and Mars.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA, 2009) responded to public comments on climate change attribution.[78] A number of commenters had argued that recent climate change could be attributed to changes in solar irradiance. According to the US EPA (2009), this attribution was not supported by the bulk of the scientific literature. Citing the work of the IPCC (2007), the US EPA pointed to the low contribution of solar irradiance to radiative forcing since the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750. Over this time period (1750 to 2005),[87] the estimated contribution of solar irradiance to radiative forcing was 5% the value of the combined radiative forcing due to increases in the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide (see graph opposite).

Effect of cosmic rays

Henrik Svensmark has suggested that the magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays, and that this may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei, and thereby have an effect on the climate.[88] The website ScienceDaily reported on a 2009 study that looked at how past changes in climate have been affected by the Earth's magnetic field.[89] Geophysicist Mads Faurschou Knudsen, who co-authored the study, stated that the study's results supported Svensmark's theory. The authors of the study also acknowledged that CO2 plays an important role in climate change.

Consensus view on cosmic rays

The view that cosmic rays could provide the mechanism by which changes in solar activity affect climate is not supported by the literature.[90] Solomon et al. (2007)[91] state:

[..] the cosmic ray time series does not appear to correspond to global total cloud cover after 1991 or to global low-level cloud cover after 1994. Together with the lack of a proven physical mechanism and the plausibility of other causal factors affecting changes in cloud cover, this makes the association between galactic cosmic ray-induced changes in aerosol and cloud formation controversial

Studies by Lockwood and Fröhlich (2007)[92] and Sloan and Wolfendale (2008)[93] found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays. Pierce and Adams (2009)[94] used a model to simulate the effect of cosmic rays on cloud properties. They concluded that the hypothesized effect of cosmic rays was too small to explain recent climate change.[94] Pierce and Adams (2009)[95] noted that their findings did not rule out a possible connection between cosmic rays and climate change, and recommended further research.

Erlykin et al. (2009)[96] found that the evidence showed that connections between solar variation and climate were more likely to be mediated by direct variation of insolation rather than cosmic rays, and concluded: "Hence within our assumptions, the effect of varying solar activity, either by direct solar irradiance or by varying cosmic ray rates, must be less than 0.07 °C since 1956, i.e. less than 14% of the observed global warming." Carslaw (2009)[97] and Pittock (2009)[98] review the recent and historical literature in this field and continue to find that the link between cosmic rays and climate is tenuous, though they encourage continued research. US EPA (2009)[90] commented on research by Duplissy et al. (2009):[99]

The CLOUD experiments at CERN are interesting research but do not provide conclusive evidence that cosmic rays can serve as a major source of cloud seeding. Preliminary results from the experiment (Duplissy et al., 2009) suggest that though there was some evidence of ion mediated nucleation, for most of the nucleation events observed the contribution of ion processes appeared to be minor. These experiments also showed the difficulty in maintaining sufficiently clean conditions and stable temperatures to prevent spurious aerosol bursts. There is no indication that the earlier Svensmark experiments could even have matched the controlled conditions of the CERN experiment. We find that the Svensmark results on cloud seeding have not yet been shown to be robust or sufficient to materially alter the conclusions of the assessment literature, especially given the abundance of recent literature that is skeptical of the cosmic ray-climate linkage

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 this section is quoted from a public-domain source (Karl et al., 2009), with some minor changes: "Global Climate Change", Missing or empty |title= (help), in Karl & others 2009
  2. ↑ "NOAA Climate Services: Climate Variability (Flash object)". NOAA.
  3. 1 2 http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch9.html IPCC AR4 WG1 2007
  4. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): D. Understanding the Climate System and its Recent Changes, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: IPCC AR5 WG1 2013, p. 13
  5. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): Footnote 2, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: IPCC AR5 WG1 2013, p. 2
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 US EPA, OAR, Climate Change Division (December 2009), Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act: Climate Change: US EPA (PDF), Press release: EPA's Final Endangerment Finding: Climate Change Facts. Docket ID EPA-HQ-OAR-2009-0171.
  7. 1 2 Committee on the Science of Climate Change, US National Research Council (2001). "Summary". Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 0-309-07574-2. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-20. "The IPCC's conclusion that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations accurately reflects the current thinking of the scientific community on this issue" (page 3).
  8. 1 2 3 4 US National Research Council (2008). Understanding and responding to climate change: Highlights of National Academies Reports, 2008 edition (PDF). 500 Fifth St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  9. ↑ Cook & others 2013
  10. ↑ OPR n.d.
  11. ↑ Le Treut et al., Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science, FAQ 1.1, What Factors Determine Earth's Climate?, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  12. ↑ Forster et al., Chapter 2: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and Radiative Forcing, FAQ 2.1, How do Human Activities Contribute to Climate Change and How do They Compare with Natural Influences? in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  13. 1 2 3 IPCC, Summary for Policymakers, Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Change, Figure SPM.2, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  14. ↑ Committee on the Science of Climate Change, US National Research Council (2001). "2. Natural Climatic Variations". Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-309-07574-2. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  15. ↑ Albritton et al., Technical Summary, Box 1: What drives changes in climate?, in IPCC TAR WG1 2001.
  16. ↑  This article incorporates public domain material from the US Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) document: Figure 14: Detection and Attribution as Forensics (source: NOAA NCDC), in: Walsh, J.; et al. (11 January 2013), "Appendix II: The Science of Climate Change" (PDF), FEDERAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE DRAFT CLIMATE ASSESSMENT. A report by the National Climate Assessment Development Advisory Committee, p.1139 (p.23 of chapter PDF).
  17. ↑ Mitchell et al., Chapter 12: Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes, Section 12.1.1: The Meaning of Detection and Attribution, in IPCC TAR WG1 2001.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Quote from public-domain source: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (28 June 2012). "Causes of Climate Change: The Greenhouse Effect causes the atmosphere to retain heat". EPA. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
  19. ↑ See also: 2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Concentrations, 2. Validity of Observed and Measured Data, retrieved 2013-07-01, in EPA 2009
  20. 1 2 Le Treut, H.; et al., "Historical Overview of Climate Change Science", 1.3.1 The Human Fingerprint on Greenhouse Gases Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  21. ↑ "The Kyoto Protocol". UNFCCC.
  22. ↑ see Stern (2006) for more details: "7. Projecting the Growth of Greenhouse-Gas Emissions" (PDF), (PDF), pp. 171–174 Missing or empty |title= (help), in Stern 2006
  23. ↑ Schmidt, Gavin A. (6 April 2005). "Water vapour: feedback or forcing?". RealClimate. Retrieved 2008-04-07.
  24. ↑ Solomon, S.; et al., "Technical Summary", TS.2.1.1 Changes in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxide Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  25. 1 2 Solomon, S.; et al., "Technical Summary", Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  26. 1 2 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Henning Steinfeld .... (2006). Livestock's Long Shadow (PDF). Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. ISBN 9251055718.
  27. ↑ ?? in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  28. ↑ Geerts, B. "Aerosols and Climate".
  29. ↑ UCAR FAQ: How much has global temp. risen over the past 100 years?
  30. 1 2 IPCC, Summary for Policymakers. in IPCC TAR WG1 2001.
  31. ↑ Solomon et al., Technical Summary, p. ?. in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  32. 1 2 3 4 In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, the following scale is used to quantify uncertainty: "virtually certain" >99%; "extremely likely" >95%; "very likely" >90%; "likely" >66%; "more likely than not" >50%; "about as likely as not" 33 to 66%; "unlikely" <33%; "very unlikely" <10%; "extremely unlikely" <5%; "exceptionally unlikely" <1%. Solomon, S.; et al., "Technical Summary", Box TS.1: Treatment of Uncertainties in the Working Group I Assessment Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  33. 1 2 Hegerl et al., Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change, Executive Summary, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  34. 1 2 Solomon, S.; et al., "Technical Summary", TS.6.1 Changes in Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  35. ↑ Mitchell et al., Chapter 12: Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes Section 12.4.3, Optimal Fingerprint Methods, in IPCC TAR WG1 2001.
  36. ↑ Figure 4, Simulated annual global mean surface temperatures, in IPCC TAR WG1 2001.
  37. 1 2 NOAA (10 March 2010). "NOAA: NESDIS: NCDC: Frequently Asked Questions: How important are these changes in a longer–(term) context?". NOAA.
  38. 1 2 3 Quote from public-domain source: Lindsey, R. (4 May 2010), If Earth has warmed and cooled throughout history, what makes scientists think that humans are causing global warming now? : Climate Q&A : Blogs, Earth Observatory, part of the EOS Project Science Office, located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
  39. 1 2 Schneider, S., Climate Science, Stephen H. Schneider, Stanford University, It is likely that human activities have caused a discernible impact on observed warming trends, retrieved 2012-09-28
  40. ↑ Lean, J. L. & Rind, D. H. (2008), "How natural and anthropogenic influences alter global and regional surface temperatures: 1889 to 2006", Geophysical Research Letters, 35 (18), Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3518701L, doi:10.1029/2008GL034864, referred to by: Riebeek, H., Is Current Warming Natural? in: Global Warming (p.4), Feature Articles, Earth Observatory, part of the EOS Project Science Office, located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
  41. ↑ US EPA (28 January 2009), Climate Science Seminar: Natural and Anthropogenic Influences on Earth's Surface Temperature (Judith Lean, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory), Abstract, Seminars with Video: Events: NCEE: US EPA, US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA): National Center for Environmental Economics (NCEE). Last updated 2 November 2012.
  42. 1 2 Riebeek, H., Is Current Warming Natural? in: Global Warming (p.4), Feature Articles, Earth Observatory, part of the EOS Project Science Office, located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
  43. 1 2 3 Hansen, J.; et al. (July 2012), The New Climate Dice: Public Perception of Climate Change (PDF), New York, USA: Dr James E. Hansen, Columbia University, pp. 3–4
  44. ↑ Seneviratne, S.I.; et al., "Ch 3. Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment: FAQ 3.2. Has Climate Change Affected Individual Extreme Events?" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC SREX 2012, p. 127.
  45. ↑ Seneviratne, S.I.; et al., "Ch 3. Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment: Executive summary" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC SREX 2012, p. 112.
  46. 1 2 Stott, P.A.; et al. (2004), "Human contribution to the European heatwave of 2003", Nature, 432 (7017), pp. 610–614, Bibcode:2004Natur.432..610S, doi:10.1038/nature03089, PMID 15577907
  47. ↑ Stott, P.A.; et al. (July 2012), Peterson, T.C. et al., eds., "Introduction. In: Explaining Extreme Events of 2011 from a Climate Perspective" (PDF), Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc, 93, pp. 1041–1067, Bibcode:2012BAMS...93.1041P, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00021.1, 1042
  48. ↑ Hansen & others 2012, p. 1
  49. 1 2 3 4 Discussion, in Hansen & others 2012, pp. 6–7
  50. 1 2 Dole, R.; et al. (March 2011), "Was there a basis for anticipating the 2010 Russian heat wave?" (PDF), Geophysical Research Letters, 38 (6), Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.6702D, doi:10.1029/2010GL046582
  51. ↑ IPCC, "Summary for Policymakers", Understanding and Attributing Climate Change Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  52. ↑ Committee on Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years, US National Research Council (2006). "Overview". Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years. Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-309-66144-7. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  53. ↑ Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; US National Research Council (2010). "Summary". Advancing the Science of Climate Change. Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-309-14588-6. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  54. ↑ Karl & others 2009, Executive Summary, p. 12.
  55. ↑ "Joint science academies' statement: Global response to climate change". UK Royal Society website. 7 June 2005. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  56. ↑ "Joint statement by NASAC to the G8 on sustainability, energy efficiency and climate change". UK Royal Society website. 1 June 2007. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
  57. ↑ Tett SFB; et al. (2002). "Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change". J. Geophys. Res. 107 (D16): 4306. Bibcode:2002JGRD..107.4306T. doi:10.1029/2000JD000028.
  58. ↑ William Connolley (27 May 2003). "Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change". Newsgroup: sci.environment. Usenet: [email protected]. Retrieved 2012-06-13.
  59. ↑ Barnett, T. (May 2005). "Detecting and Attributing External Influences on the Climate System: A Review of Recent Advances" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 18 (9): 1291–1314. Bibcode:2005JCli...18.1291.. doi:10.1175/JCLI3329.1.
  60. ↑ Barnett TP, Pierce DW, Achutarao KM, et al. (July 2005). "Penetration of human-induced warming into the world's oceans". Science. 309 (5732): 284–7. Bibcode:2005Sci...309..284B. doi:10.1126/science.1112418. PMID 15933161.
  61. ↑ Schmidt, Gavin A. (11 August 2007). "Et Tu LT?". RealClimate.org.
  62. ↑ Schmidt, Gavin A. (11 August 2007). "The tropical lapse rate quandary". RealClimate.org.
  63. ↑ Wigley, Tom M. L. (2 May 2006). "Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere — Understanding and Reconciling Differences (Executive Summary)" (PDF). NOAA.
  64. ↑ Oreskes N (December 2004). "Beyond the ivory tower. The scientific consensus on climate change". Science. 306 (5702): 1686. doi:10.1126/science.1103618. PMID 15576594.
  65. ↑ Anderegg, W.R.L.; et al. (6 July 2010). "Expert credibility in climate change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (27): 12107–12109. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10712107A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1003187107. PMC 2901439Freely accessible. PMID 20566872. Referred to by: Wihbey, J. (3 July 2012). "Expert Credibility in Climate Change". Journalist's Resource: Research for Reporting. A project of the Harvard Kennedy School's Shorenstein Center and the Carnegie-Knight Initiative.
  66. 1 2 3 4 5 Farnsworth, S. J. "The Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change". International Journal of Public Opinion Research. 24: 93–103. doi:10.1093/ijpor/edr033. Referred to by: Wihbey, J. (4 November 2011). "Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change". Journalist's Resource: Research for Reporting. A project of the Harvard Kennedy School's Shorenstein Center and the Carnegie-Knight Initiative.
  67. ↑ Lindzen RS (August 1997). "Can increasing carbon dioxide cause climate change?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (16): 8335–42. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.8335L. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.16.8335. PMC 33750Freely accessible. PMID 11607742.
  68. ↑ for example: Soon, W.; Posmentier, E.; Baliunas, S. (2000). "Climate hypersensitivity to solar forcing?". Annales Geophysicae. 18 (5): 583–588. Bibcode:2000AnGeo..18..583S. doi:10.1007/s00585-000-0583-z.
  69. ↑ Global Climate Change, in Karl & others 2009, pp. 15–16.
  70. ↑ Hegerl, et al., Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change, Frequently Asked Question 9.2: Can the Warming of the 20th century be Explained by Natural Variability?, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  71. ↑ Hegerl, et al., Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change, Executive Summary, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  72. ↑ Simmon, R. & D. Herring (November 2009). "Notes for slide number 5 titled "Over 100 years of total solar irradiance data," in presentation, "Human contributions to global climate change"". Presentation library on the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Climate Services website. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  73. ↑ Committee on Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years, US National Research Council (2006). "10. Climate Forcings and Climate Models". Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years. Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press. p. 109. ISBN 0-309-66144-7. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  74. ↑ Simmon, R. & D. Herring (November 2009). "Notes for slide number 7, titled "Satellite evidence also suggests greenhouse gas warming," in presentation, "Human contributions to global climate change"". Presentation library on the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Climate Services website. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  75. ↑ Hegerl et al., Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change, Frequently Asked Question 9.2: Can the Warming of the 20th century be Explained by Natural Variability?, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  76. ↑ Karl & others 2009, p. 20.
  77. ↑ Celeste M. Johanson & Qiang Fu (2009). "Hadley Cell Widening: Model Simulations versus Observations" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 22 (10): 2713–25. Bibcode:2009JCli...22.2713J. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2620.1.
  78. 1 2 US Environmental Protection Agency (2009). "3.2.2 Solar Irradiance". Volume 3: Attribution of Observed Climate Change. Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act. EPA's Response to Public Comments. US Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  79. ↑ Abdussamatov, Habibullo I. (June 2004). "About the long-term coordinated variations of the activity, radius, total irradiance of the Sun and the Earth's climate". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 223: 541–542. doi:10.1017/S1743921304006775. "The main cause of climate change during the last millennia is the corresponding cyclic variation of the 80- and 200-year component of irradiance correlated with activity. That is why, the contemporary (climate change) is not anomalous but is ordinary secular global warming."
  80. ↑ Solomon, Lawrence (2 February 2007b). "Look to Mars for the truth on global warming". National Post. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
  81. 1 2 Ravilious, Kate (28 February 2007). "Mars Melt Hints at Solar, Not Human, Cause for Warming, Scientist Says". National Geographic News.
  82. 1 2 3 Than, Ker (12 March 2007). "Sun Blamed for Warming of Earth and Other Worlds". LiveScience.com.
  83. ↑ See also: Fenton, Lori K.; Geissler, Paul E.; Haberle, Robert M. (5 April 2007). "Global warming and climate forcing by recent of albedo changes on Mars" (PDF). Nature. 446 (7136): 646–649. Bibcode:2007Natur.446..646F. doi:10.1038/nature05718. PMID 17410170. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
  84. ↑ See also: "MIT researcher finds evidence of global warming on Neptune's largest moon". MIT. 24 June 1998.
  85. ↑ See also: Goudarzi, Sara (4 May 2006). "New Storm on Jupiter Hints at Climate Change". Space.com.
  86. ↑ See also: "Pluto is undergoing global warming, researchers find". MIT. 9 October 2002.
  87. ↑ IPCC, Summary for Policymakers, Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Change, in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007.
  88. ↑ Marsh, Nigel; Henrik, Svensmark (November 2000). "Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Climate" (PDF). Space Science Reviews. 94 (1–2): 215–230. doi:10.1023/A:1026723423896. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
  89. ↑ "The earth's magnetic field impacts climate: Danish study". SpaceDaily.com. 12 January 2009. Retrieved 2013-01-05.
  90. 1 2 EPA's Response to Public Comments, Vol. 3: Attribution of Observed Climate Change, Response 3-36, in Sec 3.2.2 Solar Irradiance, in EPA 2009
  91. ↑ Solomon, S.; et al., "Technical Summary", TS.2.4 Radiative Forcing Due to Solar Activity and Volcanic Eruptions Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG1 2007, p. 31
  92. ↑ Lockwood, Mike; Claus Fröhlich (2007). "Recent oppositely directed trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 463 (2086): 2447–2460. Bibcode:2007RSPSA.463.2447L. doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.1880. Retrieved 21 July 2007. Our results show that the observed rapid rise in global mean temperatures seen after 1985 cannot be ascribed to solar variability, whichever of the mechanisms is invoked and no matter how much the solar variation is amplified
  93. ↑ T Sloan & A W Wolfendale (2008). "Testing the proposed causal link between cosmic rays and cloud cover". Environ. Res. Lett. 3 (2): 024001. arXiv:0803.2298Freely accessible. Bibcode:2008ERL.....3d4001S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/2/024001.
  94. 1 2 Abstract, in Pierce & Adams 2009
  95. ↑ paragraph 18, in: 6. Discussion, in Pierce & Adams 2009, p. 5
  96. ↑ Erlykin & others 2009
  97. ↑ Carslaw 2009
  98. ↑ Pittock 2009
  99. ↑ Duplissy & others 2009

References

Public-domain sources

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/13/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.