Mobile phone radiation and health

A man speaking on a mobile telephone

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is a subject of interest and study worldwide, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. As of 2016, there were 7.4 billion subscriptions worldwide, though the actual number of users is lower as many users own multiple mobile phones.[1] Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range (450–2100 MHz). Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.

In 2011, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified mobile phone radiation as Group 2B – possibly carcinogenic (not Group 2A – probably carcinogenic – nor the dangerous Group 1). That means that there "could be some risk" of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones needs to be conducted.[2] The WHO added in June 2011 that "to date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use",[3] a point they reiterated in October 2014.[4] Some national radiation advisory authorities[5] have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens as a precautionary approach.

Effects

Many scientific studies have investigated possible health symptoms of mobile phone radiation. These studies are occasionally reviewed by some scientific committees to assess overall risks. A 2007 assessment published by the European Commission Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR)[6] concludes that the three lines of evidence, viz. animal, in vitro, and epidemiological studies, indicate that "exposure to RF fields is unlikely to lead to an increase in cancer in humans".

Radiation absorption

Part of the radio waves emitted by a mobile telephone handset are absorbed by the body. The radio waves emitted by a GSM handset are typically below a watt.[7] The maximum power output from a mobile phone is regulated by the mobile phone standard and by the regulatory agencies in each country. In most systems the cellphone and the base station check reception quality and signal strength and the power level is increased or decreased automatically, within a certain span, to accommodate different situations, such as inside or outside of buildings and vehicles.[8] The rate at which energy is absorbed by the human body is measured by the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), and its maximum levels for modern handsets have been set by governmental regulating agencies in many countries. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has set a SAR limit of 1.6 W/kg, averaged over a volume of 1 gram of tissue, for the head. In Europe, the limit is 2 W/kg, averaged over a volume of 10 grams of tissue. SAR values are heavily dependent on the size of the averaging volume. Without information about the averaging volume used, comparisons between different measurements cannot be made. Thus, the European 10-gram ratings should be compared among themselves, and the American 1-gram ratings should only be compared among themselves. SAR data for specific mobile phones, along with other useful information, can be found directly on manufacturers' websites, as well as on third party web sites.[9] It is worth noting that thermal radiation is not comparable to ionizing radiation in that it only increases the temperature in normal matter, it does not break molecular bonds or release electrons from their atoms.

Thermal effects

Microwave radiation causes dielectric heating, in which any dielectric material (such as living tissue) is heated by rotations of polar molecules induced by the electromagnetic field. For a person using a cell phone, most of the heating effect will occur at the surface of the head, causing its temperature to increase by a fraction of a degree. The level of temperature increase is an order of magnitude less than that obtained during exposure to direct sunlight. The brain's blood circulation is capable of disposing of excess heat by increasing local blood flow.

The cornea of the eye does not have such a temperature regulation mechanism and exposure of 2–3 hours duration at SAR values from 100–140 W/kg produced lenticular temperatures of 41 °C in rabbits' eyes and led to the formation of cataracts. There were no cataracts detected in the eyes of monkeys exposed under similar conditions.[10] The power output of mobile phones is considerably lower and such premature cataracts have not been linked with cell phone use.

Non-thermal effects

The communications protocols used by mobile phones often result in low-frequency pulsing of the carrier signal. The effect of these modulations compared with simple RF thermic effects is subject to debate.[11]

Some researchers have argued that so-called "non-thermal effects" could be reinterpreted as a normal cellular response to an increase in temperature. The German biophysicist Roland Glaser, for example,[12] has argued that there are several thermoreceptor molecules in cells, and that they activate a cascade of second and third messenger systems, gene expression mechanisms and production of heat shock proteins in order to defend the cell against metabolic cell stress caused by heat. The increases in temperature that cause these changes are too small to be detected by studies such as REFLEX, which base their whole argument on the apparent stability of thermal equilibrium in their cell cultures.

Other researchers believe the stress proteins are unrelated to thermal effects, since they occur for both extremely low frequencies (ELF) and radio frequencies (RF), which have very different energy levels.[13] Another preliminary study published in 2011 by The Journal of the American Medical Association conducted using fluorodeoxyglucose injections and positron emission tomography concluded that exposure to radiofrequency signal waves within parts of the brain closest to the cell phone antenna resulted in increased levels of glucose metabolism, but the clinical significance of this finding is unknown.[14][15]

Blood–brain barrier effects

Swedish researchers from Lund University (Salford, Brun, Persson, Eberhardt, and Malmgren) have studied the effects of microwave radiation on the rat brain. They found a leakage of albumin into the brain via a permeated blood–brain barrier.[16][17] This confirms earlier work on the blood–brain barrier by Allan Frey, Oscar and Hawkins, and Albert and Kerns.[18] Other groups have not confirmed these findings in vitro cell studies[19] or whole animal studies,[18]:102[20]

Prof Leszczynski of Finland's radiation and nuclear safety authority found that, at the maximum legal limit for mobile radiation, one protein in particular, HSP 27, was affected. HSP 27 played a critical role in the integrity of the blood-brain barrier.[21]

Cancers to humans

In 2006, a large Danish group's study about the connection between mobile phone use and cancer incidence was published. It followed over 420,000 Danish citizens for 20 years and showed no increased risk of cancer.[22] A 2011 follow-up confirmed these findings.[23]

The following studies of long time exposure have been published:

The International Journal of Epidemiology published[25] a combined data analysis from INTERPHONE, a multi national population-based case-control study of glioma and meningioma, the most common types of brain tumour.

The authors reported the following conclusion:

Overall, no increase in risk of glioma or meningioma was observed with use of mobile phones. There were suggestions of an increased risk of glioma at the highest exposure levels, but biases and error prevent a causal interpretation. The possible effects of long-term heavy use of mobile phones require further investigation.

In the press release[26] accompanying the release of the paper, Dr. Christopher Wild, Director of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) said:

An increased risk of brain cancer is not established from the data from Interphone. However, observations at the highest level of cumulative call time and the changing patterns of mobile phone use since the period studied by Interphone, particularly in young people, mean that further investigation of mobile phone use and brain cancer risk is merited.

A number of independent health and government authorities have commented on this important study including The Australian Centre for Radiofrequency Bioeffects Research (ACRBR) which said in a statement that:[27]

Until now there have been concerns that mobile phones were causing increases in brain tumours. Interphone is both large and rigorous enough to address this claim, and it has not provided any convincing scientific evidence of an association between mobile phone use and the development of glioma or meningioma. While the study demonstrates some weak evidence of an association with the highest tenth of cumulative call time (but only in those who started mobile phone use most recently), the authors conclude that biases and errors limit the strength of any conclusions in this group. It now seems clear that if there was an effect of mobile phone use on brain tumour risks in adults, this is likely to be too small to be detectable by even a large multinational study of the size of Interphone.

The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) which said in a statement that:

On the basis of current understanding of the relationship between brain cancer and use of mobile phones, including the recently published data from the INTERPHONE study, ARPANSA:
concludes that currently available data do not warrant any general recommendation to limit use of mobile phones in the adult population,
continues to inform those concerned about potential health effects that they may limit their exposure by reducing call time, by making calls where reception is good, by using hands-free devices or speaker options, or by texting; and
recommends that, due to the lack of any data relating to children and long term use of mobile phones, parents encourage their children to limit their exposure by reducing call time, by making calls where reception is good, by using hands-free devices or speaker options, or by texting.

The Cancer Council Australia said in a statement that it cautiously welcomed the results of the largest international study to date into mobile phone use, which has found no evidence that normal use of mobile phones, for a period up to 12 years, can cause brain cancer.

Chief Executive Officer, Professor Ian Olver, said findings from the Interphone study, conducted across 13 countries including Australia, were consistent with other research that had failed to find a link between mobile phones and cancer.

This supports previous research showing mobile phones don’t damage cell DNA, meaning they can’t cause the type of genetic mutations that develop into cancer,” Professor Olver said.
However, it has been suggested that electromagnetic fields associated with mobile phones may play a role in speeding up the development of an existing cancer. The Interphone study found no evidence to support this theory.

Other studies on cancer and mobile phones are:

In 2007, Dr. Lennart Hardell, from Örebro University in Sweden, reviewed published epidemiological papers (2 cohort studies and 16 case-control studies) and found that:[35]

In a February 2008 update on the status of the INTERPHONE study IARC stated that the long-term findings ‘…could either be causal or artifactual, related to differential recall between cases and controls.’[36]

Wikinews has related news: Media reports exaggerate cell phone cancer risk

A publication titled "Public health implications of wireless technologies" cites that Lennart Hardell found age is a significant factor. The report repeated the finding that the use of cell phones before age 20 increased the risk of brain tumors by 5.2, compared to 1.4 for all ages.[37] A review by Hardell et al. concluded that current mobile phones are not safe for long-term exposure.[38] In 2009, a meta-analysis of 23 studies on mobile phone use and tumor risk found that "there is possible evidence" that mobile phone use causes an increased risk of tumors.[39]

In a time trends study in Europe, conducted by the Institute of Cancer Epidemiology in Copenhagen, no significant increase in brain tumors among cell phone users was found between the years of 1998 and 2003. "The lack of a trend change in incidence from 1998 to 2003 suggests that the induction period relating mobile phone use to brain tumors exceeds 5–10 years, the increased risk in this population is too small to be observed, the increased risk is restricted to subgroups of brain tumors or mobile phone users, or there is no increased risk."[40]

On 31 May 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). The IARC assessed and evaluated available literature and studies about the carcinogenicity of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), and found the evidence to be "limited for carcinogenicity of RF-EMF, based on positive associations between glioma and acoustic neuroma and exposure". The conclusion of the IARC was mainly based on the INTERPHONE study, which found an increased risk for glioma in the highest category of heavy users (30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period), although no increased risk was found at lower exposure and other studies could not back up the findings. The evidence for other types of cancer was found to be "inadequate". Some members of the Working Group opposed the conclusions and considered the current evidence in humans still as "inadequate", citing inconsistencies between the assessed studies.[2][41]

In 2011, a review published in Environmental Health Perspectives found that increasing evidence suggests that mobile phone use does not cause brain tumors in adults.[42]

In 2012, a systematic review was published which found "no statistically significant increase in risk for adult brain cancer or other head tumors from wireless phone use."[43]

Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that while cell phone use increased substantially over the period 1992 to 2008 (from nearly zero to almost 100 percent of the population), the U.S. trends in glioma incidence did not mirror that increase.[44]

In 2014, a French national case-control study, CERENAT, confirmed a possible association between heavy mobile phone use and brain tumours (gliomas and meningiomas), finding an up to eight-fold increased risk of gliomas tied with cellphone use.[45] A review published the same year concluded that its results "detract from the hypothesis that mobile phone use affects the occurrence of intracranial tumors."[46]

In March 2015, a study on mice carried on by Prof. Alexander Lerchl of Jacobs University in Bremen and his team on behalf of the German Federal Office for Radiation Protection found out that the growth rate of liver and lung cancer generated by chemical substances raises substantially when the animals are lifelong irradiated with mobile phone-like e.m. fields.[47] This study confirms a research carried on in 2010 at Fraunhofer Institute.[47] Moreover, the researchers discovered a significant higher rate of lymphomas, and found out that some of the effects occur also for field intensities lower than current limits.[47] The underlying mechanisms are unknown.[47]

In May 2016, the National Toxicology Program released partial results from an extensive rat study finding that cell phone radiation exposure was associated with an increase in brain and heart cancer rates.[48][49] Specifically, 2 to 3 percent of male rats exposed to cell phone radiation developed malignant glioma brain tumors and 5 to 7 percent of exposed rats developed schwannoma tumors in their hearts.[50] Because of the scale of the study, scientists such as the director of the American Science Society, found the study to be based on solid grounds and serving as major advance towards resolving the important cell phone use and public health issue.[51] Other scientists and organizations questioned the findings because of the apparent reliability problems.[50] Only male rats indicated a significant tumor increase while there were no significant increase in female rats. Unlike the normal rat population's 2 percent malignant glioma rates, none of the control group's rats showed any malignant glioma development. What was also surprising was that the exposed male rats demonstrated longer life spans than the control group's unexposed male rats.[50] These inconsistencies led Dr. Michael S. Lauer, deputy director for extramural research at the National Institutes of Health, to conclude that it is likely that the studies findings were based on false positive results.[50]

Cognitive effects

A 2009 study, examined the effects of exposure to radiofrequency radiation (RFR) emitted by standard GSM cell phones on the cognitive functions of humans. The study confirmed longer (slower) response times to a spatial working memory task when exposed to RFR from a standard GSM cellular phone placed next to the head of male subjects, and showed that longer duration of exposure to RFR may increase the effects on performance. Right-handed subjects exposed to RFR on the left side of their head on average had significantly longer response times when compared to exposure to the right side and sham-exposure.[52]

Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

Some users of mobile handsets have reported feeling several unspecific symptoms during and after its use; ranging from burning and tingling sensations in the skin of the head and extremities, fatigue, sleep disturbances, dizziness, loss of mental attention, reaction times and memory retentiveness, headaches, malaise, tachycardia (heart palpitations), to disturbances of the digestive system. None of these symptoms has been linked to electromagnetic exposure and sufferers are unable to tell from their symptoms whether a signal is present or not.[53]

Genotoxic effects

A meta-analysis (2008) of 63 in vitro and in vivo studies from the years 1990–2005, concluded that RF radiation was genotoxic only in some conditions and that the studies reporting positive effects evidenced publication bias.[54]

A meta-study (2009) of 101 publications on genotoxicity of RF electromagnetic fields, showed that 49 reported a genotoxic effect and 42 not. The authors found "ample evidence that RF-EMF can alter the genetic material of exposed cells in vivo and in vitro and in more than one way".[55]

In 1995, in the journal Bioelectromagnetics, Henry Lai and Narenda P. Singh reported damaged DNA after two hours of microwave radiation at levels deemed safe according to U.S. government standards.[56]

In December 2004, a pan-European study named REFLEX (Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards from Low Energy Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Exposure Using Sensitive in vitro Methods), involving 12 collaborating laboratories in several countries showed some compelling evidence of DNA damage of cells in in-vitro cultures, when exposed between 0.3 and 2 watts/kg, whole-sample average. There were indications, but not rigorous evidence of other cell changes, including damage to chromosomes, alterations in the activity of certain genes and a boosted rate of cell division.[57]

Research published in 2004, by a team at the University of Athens, had a reduction in reproductive capacity in fruit flies exposed to 6 minutes of 900 MHz pulsed radiation for five days.[58]

Subsequent research, again conducted on fruit flies, was published in 2007, with the same exposure pattern but conducted at both 900 MHz and 1800 MHz, and had similar changes in reproductive capacity with no significant difference between the two frequencies.[59]

Following additional tests published in a third article, the authors stated they thought their research suggested the changes were "…due to degeneration of large numbers of egg chambers after DNA fragmentation of their constituent cells …".[60]

Australian research conducted in 2009, by subjecting in vitro samples of human spermatozoa to radio-frequency radiation at 1.8 GHz and specific absorption rates (SAR) of 0.4 to 27.5 W/kg showed a correlation between increasing SAR and decreased motility and vitality in sperm, increased oxidative stress and 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine markers, stimulating DNA base adduct formation and increased DNA fragmentation.[61]

Sleep and EEG effects

Sleep, EEG and waking rCBF have been studied in relation to RF exposure. A Finnish study failed to find any effect on sleep or other cognitive function from pulsed RF exposure,[62] Other papers report significant effects on sleep.[63][64][65][66][67][68] Two of these papers found the effect was only present when the exposure was pulsed (amplitude modulated), and one early paper found that sleep quality (measured by the amount of participants' broken sleep) improved.

While some papers were inconclusive or inconsistent,[69][70] a number of studies have now demonstrated reversible EEG and rCBF alterations from exposure to pulsed RF exposure.[71][72][73][74] German research from 2006 found that statistically significant EEG changes could be consistently found, but only in a relatively low proportion of study participants (12–30%).[75]

Behavioural effects

A study on mice offspring suggested that cell phone use during pregnancy may cause behavioural problems that resemble the effects of ADHD.[76]

Sperm count and sperm quality

A number of studies have shown relationships between mobile telephone use and reduced sperm count and sperm quality. Peer reviewed studies have shown relationships using statistical questionnaire techniques,[77][78][79][80][81] controlled experiments on living humans,[82] and controlled experiments on sperm outside the body.[83][84][85][86]

The Environmental Working Group (EWG) has a web page entitled "Cell Phone Radiation Damages Sperm, Studies Show" published August 2013. The EWG page reviews and tabulates studies showing relationships between mobile phone use and low sperm count and sperm quality.[87]

Health hazards of base stations

A Greenfield-type tower used in base stations for mobile telephony

Another area of concern is the radiation emitted by the fixed infrastructure used in mobile telephony, such as base stations and their antennas, which provide the link to and from mobile phones. This is because, in contrast to mobile handsets, it is emitted continuously and is more powerful at close quarters. On the other hand, field intensities drop rapidly with distance away from the base of transmitters because of the attenuation of power with the square of distance.

One popular design of mobile phone antenna is the sector antenna, whose coverage is 120 degrees horizontally and about ∓5 degrees from the vertical.

Because many base stations operate at less than 100 watts and the antenna is raised up well above ground, the radiation at ground level is much weaker than that from a cell phone, due to the power relationship appropriate for that design of antenna. Base station emissions must comply with safety guidelines (see Safety standards and licensing below). Some countries, however (such as South Africa, for example), have no health regulations governing the placement of base stations.

Several surveys have found a variety of self-reported symptoms for people who live close to base stations.[88][89][90][91][92] However, there are significant challenges in conducting studies of populations near base stations, especially in assessment of individual exposure.[93] Self-report studies can also be vulnerable to the nocebo effect.

Two double-blind placebo-controlled trials conducted at the University of Essex and another in Switzerland[94] concluded that mobile phone masts were unlikely to be causing these short-term effects in a group of volunteers who complained of such symptoms.[95] The Essex study found that subjects were unable to tell whether they were being exposed to electromagnetic fields or not, and that sensitive subjects reported lower well-being independently of exposure. The principal investigator concluded "It is clear that sensitive individuals are suffering real symptoms and often have a poor quality of life. It is now important to determine what other factors could be causing these symptoms, so appropriate research studies and treatment strategies can be developed."

Experts consulted by France considered it was mandatory that the main antenna axis should not to be directly in front of a living place at a distance shorter than 100 metres.[96] This recommendation was modified in 2003[97] to say that antennas located within a 100-metre radius of primary schools or childcare facilities should be better integrated into the cityscape and was not included in a 2005 expert report.[98] The Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale currently says that there is no demonstrated short-term effect of electromagnetic fields on health, but that there are open questions for long-term effects, and that it's easy to reduce exposure via technological improvements.[99]

Occupational health hazards

Telecommunication workers spend significant time close to active equipment when installing, testing and maintaining it. Base stations are often not turned off during maintenance but the power being sent through to the antennas is disconnected, so that the workers do not have to work near live antennas. In spite of this they receive much greater exposure than the general population.

Studies carried out over the past 50 years on such workers exposed to high RF radiation levels have found no significant evidence of increase in cancer rates.[100]

Safety standards and licensing

In order to protect the population living around base stations and users of mobile handsets, governments and regulatory bodies adopt safety standards, which translate to limits on exposure levels below a certain value. There are many proposed national and international standards, but that of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) is the most respected one, and has been adopted so far by more than 80 countries. For radio stations, ICNIRP proposes two safety levels: one for occupational exposure, another one for the general population. Currently there are efforts underway to harmonise the different standards in existence.[101]

Radio base licensing procedures have been established in the majority of urban spaces regulated either at municipal/county, provincial/state or national level. Mobile telephone service providers are, in many regions, required to obtain construction licenses, provide certification of antenna emission levels and assure compliance to ICNIRP standards and/or to other environmental legislation.

Many governmental bodies also require that competing telecommunication companies try to achieve sharing of towers so as to decrease environmental and cosmetic impact. This issue is an influential factor of rejection of installation of new antennas and towers in communities.

The safety standards in the U.S. are set by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC has based its standards primarily on those standards established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), specifically Subcommittee 4 of the "International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety".

Switzerland has set safety limits lower than the ICNIRP limits for certain "sensitive areas" (classrooms, for example).[102]

Lawsuits

In the U.S., a small number of personal injury lawsuits have been filed by individuals against cellphone manufacturers, such as Motorola,[103] NEC, Siemens and Nokia, on the basis of allegations of causation of brain cancer and death. In US federal court, expert testimony relating to science must be first evaluated by a judge, in a Daubert hearing, to be relevant and valid before it is admissible as evidence. In a 2002 case against Motorola, the plaintiffs alleged that the use of wireless handheld telephones could cause brain cancer, and that the use of Motorola phones caused one plaintiff's cancer. The judge ruled that no sufficiently reliable and relevant scientific evidence in support of either general or specific causation was proffered by the plaintiffs; accepted a motion to exclude the testimony of the plaintiffs' experts; and denied a motion to exclude the testimony of the defendants' experts.[104]

French High Court ruling against telecom company

In February 2009, the telecom company Bouygues Telecom was ordered to take down a mobile phone mast due to uncertainty about its effect on health. Residents in the commune Charbonnières in the Rhône department had sued the company claiming adverse health effects from the radiation emitted by the 19 meter tall antenna.[105] The milestone ruling by the Versailles Court of Appeal reversed the burden of proof which is usual in such cases by emphasizing the extreme divergence between different countries in assessing safe limits for such radiation. The court stated that, "Considering that, while the reality of the risk remains hypothetical, it becomes clear from reading the contributions and scientific publications produced in debate and the divergent legislative positions taken in various countries, that uncertainty over the harmlessness of exposure to the waves emitted by relay antennas persists and can be considered serious and reasonable".[106]

Italian High Court ruling in favour of "causal" link with brain cancer

In October 2012, Italian high court (Corte suprema di cassazione) granted an Italian businessman, Innocente Marcoloni a pension for occupational disease; "[c]ontrary to the denials of many health agencies in the U.S. and in some other countries, the Italian Supreme Court has recognized a "causal" link between heavy mobile phone use and brain tumor risk in a worker's compensation case."[107][108] According to Reuters, a lower court in Brescia had "ruled there was a causal link between the use of mobile and cordless telephones and tumours" in the case of "Innocenzo Marcolini who developed a tumour in the left side of his head after using his mobile phone for [between 5 and 6] hours a day for 12 years. He normally held the phone in his left hand, while taking notes with his right hand" and that the ruling was upheld but they summarized experts saying the "decision flies in the face of much scientific opinion, which generally says there is not enough evidence to declare a link between mobile phone use and diseases such as cancer and some experts said the Italian ruling should not be used to draw wider conclusions about the subject."[109] As it takes time to develop cancer, the court disregarded short-term studies. The court based their ruling on "studies conducted between 2005 and 2009 by a group led by Lennart Hardell, a cancer specialist at the University Hospital in Orebro in Sweden"[109] and disregarded studies that were even partially funded by the mobile phone industry such as the INTERPHONE (see above).

Precaution

Precautionary principle

In 2000, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that the precautionary principle could be voluntarily adopted in this case.[110] It follows the recommendations of the European Community for environmental risks. According to the WHO, the "precautionary principle" is "a risk management policy applied in circumstances with a high degree of scientific uncertainty, reflecting the need to take action for a potentially serious risk without awaiting the results of scientific research." Other less stringent recommended approaches are prudent avoidance principle and as low as reasonably practicable. Although all of these are problematic in application, due to the widespread use and economic importance of wireless telecommunication systems in modern civilization, there is an increased popularity of such measures in the general public, though also evidence that such approaches may increase concern.[111] They involve recommendations such as the minimization of cellphone usage, the limitation of use by at-risk population (such as children), the adoption of cellphones and microcells with as low as reasonably practicable levels of radiation, the wider use of hands-free and earphone technologies such as Bluetooth headsets, the adoption of maximal standards of exposure, RF field intensity and distance of base stations antennas from human habitations, and so forth. Overall, public information remains a challenge as various health consequences are evoked in the literature and by the media, putting populations under chronic exposure to potentially worrying information.[112]

Precautionary measures and health advisories

In May 2011, the World Health Organisation's International Agency for Research on Cancer announced it was classifying electromagnetic fields from mobile phones and other sources as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" and advised the public to adopt safety measures to reduce exposure, like use of hands-free devices or texting.

Some national radiation advisory authorities, including those of Austria,[5] France,[113] Germany,[114] and Sweden,[115] have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens. Examples of the recommendations are:

The use of "hands-free" was not recommended by the British Consumers' Association in a statement in November 2000 as they believed that exposure was increased.[116] However, measurements for the (then) UK Department of Trade and Industry[117] and others for the French l’Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale[118] showed substantial reductions. In 2005 Professor Lawrie Challis and others said clipping a ferrite bead onto hands-free kits stops the radio waves travelling up the wire and into the head.[119]

Several nations have advised moderate use of mobile phones for children.[120] A journal by Gandhi et al. in 2006 states that children receive higher levels of SAR. When 5- and 10- year olds are compared to adults, they receive about 153% higher SAR levels. Also, with the permittivity of the brain decreasing as one gets older and the higher relative volume of the exposed growing brain in children, radiation penetrates far beyond the mid-brain.[121]

See also

References

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  113. ↑ "Téléphones mobiles : santé et sécurité" (in French). Le ministère de la santé, de la jeunesse et des sports. 2 January 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2008. Lay article in (English) making comment at Gitlin, Jonathan M. (3 January 2008). "France: Beware excessive cell phone use—despite lack of data". Ars Technica. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  114. ↑ "Precaution regarding electromagnetic fields". Federal Office for Radiation Protection. 7 December 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  115. ↑ "Exponering" (in Swedish). Swedish Radiation Protection Authority. February 2006. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  116. ↑ "UK consumer group: Hands-free phone kits boost radiation exposure". cnn.com. Cable News Network. 2 November 2000. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  117. ↑ Manning, MI and Gabriel, CHB, SAR tests on mobile phones used with and without personal hands-free kits, SARtest Report 0083 for the DTI, July 2000 (PDF) at http://straff-x.com/SAR-Hands-Free-Kits-July-2000.pdf
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  120. ↑ For example, Finland "Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority: Children's mobile phone use should be limited". Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK). 7 January 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2010. and France "Téléphone mobile, DAS et santé" [Mobile telephones, SAR and health] (PDF). Votre enfant et le téléphone mobile [Your child and mobile telephony]. Association Française des Opérateurs Mobiles (AFOM)[French Mobile Phone Operators' Association] et l’Union Nationale des Associations Familiales (UNAF) [National Federation of Family Associations]. 31 January 2007. Retrieved 20 January 2010.
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