Addison's disease

Addison's disease
Addison disease, chronic adrenal insufficiency, hypocortisolism, hypoadrenalism, primary adrenal insufficiency[1]

Classic darkening of the skin due to increased pigment as seen in Addison's disease
Classification and external resources
Specialty Endocrinology
ICD-10 E27.1-E27.2
ICD-9-CM 255.4
DiseasesDB 222
MedlinePlus 000378
eMedicine med/42
Patient UK Addison's disease
MeSH D000224

Addison’s disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency and hypocortisolism, is a long-term endocrine disorder in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough steroid hormones.[1] Symptoms generally come on slowly and may include abdominal pain, weakness, and weight loss. Darkening of the skin in certain areas may also occur. Under certain circumstances, an adrenal crisis may occur with low blood pressure, vomiting, lower back pain, and loss of consciousness. An adrenal crisis can be triggered by stress, such as from an injury, surgery, or infection. Death may occur without treatment.[1]

Addison's disease arises from problems with the adrenal gland such that not enough of the steroid hormone cortisol and possibly aldosterone are produced,[1] most often due to damage by the body's own immune system in the developed world and tuberculosis in the developing world.[2] Other causes include certain medications, sepsis, and bleeding into both adrenal glands.[1][2] Secondary adrenal insufficiency is caused by not enough adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (produced by the pituitary gland) or CRH (produced by the hypothalamus). Despite this distinction, adrenal crises can happen in all forms of adrenal insufficiency. Addison's disease is generally diagnosed by blood tests, urine tests, and medical imaging.[1]

Treatment involves replacing the absent hormones.[1] This involves taking a corticosteroid such as hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone.[1][3] These medications are usually taken by mouth.[1] Lifelong, continuous steroid replacement therapy is required, with regular follow-up treatment and monitoring for other health problems.[4] A high-salt diet may also be useful in some people. If symptoms worsen, an injection of corticosteroid is recommended and people should carry a dose with them. Often, large amounts of intravenous fluids with the sugar dextrose are also required. Without treatment, an adrenal crisis can result in death.[1]

Addison’s disease affects about 0.9 to 1.4 per 10,000 people in the developed world.[1][5] It occurs most frequently in middle-aged females.[1] Secondary adrenal insufficiency is more common.[5] Long-term outcomes with treatment are typically good.[6] It is named after Thomas Addison, a graduate of the University of Edinburgh Medical School, who first described the condition in 1855.[7] The adjective "addisonian" is used to describe features of the condition, as well as people with Addison’s disease.[8]

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms of Addison's disease develop gradually and may become established before they are recognized. They can be nonspecific and are potentially attributable to other medical conditions.

The signs and symptoms include fatigue; lightheadedness upon standing or difficulty standing, muscle weakness, fever, weight loss, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, sweating, changes in mood or personality, and joint and muscle pains. Some patients have cravings for salt or salty foods due to the loss of sodium through their urine.[8] Hyperpigmentation of the skin may be seen, particularly when the patient lives in a sunny area, as well as darkening of the palmar crease, sites of friction, recent scars, the vermilion border of the lips, and genital skin.[9] These skin changes are not encountered in secondary and tertiary hypoadrenalism.[10]

On physical examination, these clinical signs may be noticed:[8]

Addison's disease is associated with the development of other autoimmune diseases, such as type I diabetes, thyroid disease (Hashimoto's thyroiditis), and vitiligo. The presence of Addison's in addition to one of these is called autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome.

Addisonian crisis

Main article: Adrenal crisis

An "Addisonian crisis" or "adrenal crisis" is a constellation of symptoms that indicates severe adrenal insufficiency. This may be the result of either previously undiagnosed Addison's disease, a disease process suddenly affecting adrenal function (such as adrenal hemorrhage), or an intercurrent problem (e.g., infection, trauma) in someone known to have Addison's disease. It is a medical emergency and potentially life-threatening situation requiring immediate emergency treatment.

Characteristic symptoms are:[11]

Causes

The negative feedback loop for glucocorticoids

Causes of adrenal insufficiency can be categorized by the mechanism through which they cause the adrenal glands to produce insufficient cortisol. These are adrenal dysgenesis (the gland has not formed adequately during development), impaired steroidogenesis (the gland is present but is biochemically unable to produce cortisol) or adrenal destruction (disease processes leading to glandular damage).[8]

Adrenal destruction

Autoimmune adrenalitis is the most common cause of Addison's disease in the industrialized world. Autoimmune destruction of the adrenal cortex is caused by an immune reaction against the enzyme 21-hydroxylase (a phenomenon first described in 1992).[12] This may be isolated or in the context of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (APS type 1 or 2), in which other hormone-producing organs, such as the thyroid and pancreas, may also be affected.[13]

Adrenal destruction is also a feature of adrenoleukodystrophy, and when the adrenal glands are involved in metastasis (seeding of cancer cells from elsewhere in the body, especially lung), hemorrhage (e.g., in Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome or antiphospholipid syndrome), particular infections (tuberculosis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis), or the deposition of abnormal protein in amyloidosis.[14]

Adrenal dysgenesis

All causes in this category are genetic, and generally very rare. These include mutations to the SF1 transcription factor, congenital adrenal hypoplasia due to DAX-1 gene mutations and mutations to the ACTH receptor gene (or related genes, such as in the Triple A or Allgrove syndrome). DAX-1 mutations may cluster in a syndrome with glycerol kinase deficiency with a number of other symptoms when DAX-1 is deleted together with a number of other genes.[8]

Impaired steroidogenesis

To form cortisol, the adrenal gland requires cholesterol, which is then converted biochemically into steroid hormones. Interruptions in the delivery of cholesterol include Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome and abetalipoproteinemia.

Of the synthesis problems, congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the most common (in various forms: 21-hydroxylase, 17α-hydroxylase, 11β-hydroxylase and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase), lipoid CAH due to deficiency of StAR and mitochondrial DNA mutations.[8] Some medications interfere with steroid synthesis enzymes (e.g., ketoconazole), while others accelerate the normal breakdown of hormones by the liver (e.g., rifampicin, phenytoin).[8]

Diagnosis

Suggestive features

Routine laboratory investigations may show:[8]

Testing

Cortisol
Aldosterone

In suspected cases of Addison's disease, demonstration of low adrenal hormone levels even after appropriate stimulation (called the ACTH stimulation test) with synthetic pituitary ACTH hormone tetracosactide is needed for the diagnosis. Two tests are performed, the short and the long test. It should be noted that dexamethasone does not cross-react with the assay and can be administered concomitantly during testing.

The short test compares blood cortisol levels before and after 250 micrograms of tetracosactide (intramuscular or intravenous) is given. If, one hour later, plasma cortisol exceeds 170 nmol/l and has risen by at least 330 nmol/l to at least 690 nmol/l, adrenal failure is excluded. If the short test is abnormal, the long test is used to differentiate between primary adrenal insufficiency and secondary adrenocortical insufficiency.

The long test uses 1 mg tetracosactide (intramuscular). Blood is taken 1, 4, 8, and 24 hr later. Normal plasma cortisol level should reach 1000 nmol/l by 4 hr. In primary Addison's disease, the cortisol level is reduced at all stages, whereas in secondary corticoadrenal insufficiency, a delayed but normal response is seen.

Other tests may be performed to distinguish between various causes of hypoadrenalism, including renin and adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, as well as medical imaging - usually in the form of ultrasound, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging.

Adrenoleukodystrophy, and the milder form, adrenomyeloneuropathy, cause adrenal insufficiency combined with neurological symptoms. These diseases are estimated to be the cause of adrenal insufficiency in about 35% of male patients with idiopathic Addison’s disease, and should be considered in the differential diagnosis of any male with adrenal insufficiency. Diagnosis is made by a blood test to detect very long chain fatty acids.[15]

Treatment

Corticosteroids to replace cortisols not secreted by the adrenal glands.

Maintenance

Treatment for Addison's disease involves replacing the missing cortisol, sometimes in the form of hydrocortisone tablets, or prednisone tablets in a dosing regimen that mimics the physiological concentrations of cortisol. Alternatively, one-quarter as much prednisolone may be used for equal glucocorticoid effect as hydrocortisone. Treatment is usually lifelong. In addition, many patients require fludrocortisone as replacement for the missing aldosterone.

People with Addison's are often advised to carry information on them (e.g., in the form of a MedicAlert bracelet or information card) for the attention of emergency medical services personnel who might need to attend to their needs.[16][17] It is also recommended that a needle, syringe, and injectable form of cortisol be carried for emergencies.[17] People with Addison's disease are advised to increase their medication during periods of illness or when undergoing surgery or dental treatment.[17] Immediate medical attention is needed when severe infections, vomiting, or diarrhea occur, as these conditions can precipitate an Addisonian crisis. A patient who is vomiting may require injections of hydrocortisone instead.[18]

Crisis

Standard therapy involves intravenous injections of glucocorticoids and large volumes of intravenous saline solution with dextrose (glucose). This treatment usually brings rapid improvement. If intravenous access is not immediately available, intramuscular injection of glucocorticoids can be used. When the patient can take fluids and medications by mouth, the amount of glucocorticoids is decreased until a maintenance dose is reached. If aldosterone is deficient, maintenance therapy also includes oral doses of fludrocortisone acetate.[19]

Epidemiology

The frequency rate of Addison's disease in the human population is sometimes estimated at roughly one in 100,000.[20] Some put the number closer to 40–144 cases per million population (1/25,000–1/7,000).[1][21] Addison's can affect persons of any age, sex, or ethnicity, but it typically presents in adults between 30 and 50 years of age.[22] Research has shown no significant predispositions based on ethnicity.[21]

Prognosis

Outcomes are typically good when treated. Most can expect to live relatively normal lives. Someone with the disease should be observant of symptoms of an "Addison's crisis" while the body is strained, as in rigorous exercise or being sick, the latter often needing emergency treatment with intravenous injections to treat the crisis.[23]

Individuals with Addison's disease has more than a doubled mortality rate.[24] Furthermore, individuals with Addison's disease and diabetes mellitus have a almost 4 time increase in mortality compared to individuals with only diabetes.[25]

History

Discovery

Addison’s disease is named after Thomas Addison, the British physician who first described the condition in On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsules (1855).[26] All of Addison's six original patients had tuberculosis of the adrenal glands.[27] While Addison's six patients in 1855 all had adrenal tuberculosis, the term "Addison's disease" does not imply an underlying disease process.

The condition was initially considered a form of anemia associated with the adrenal glands. Because little was known at the time about the adrenal glands (then called "Supra-Renal Capsules"), Addison’s monograph describing the condition was an isolated insight. As the adrenal function became better known, Addison’s monograph became known as an important medical contribution and a classic example of careful medical observation.[28]

Notable cases

United States president John F. Kennedy (1917-1963), probably the single most famous case of Addison's disease

Other animals

The condition has been diagnosed in all breeds of dogs. In general, it is underdiagnosed, and one must clinically suspect it as an underlying disorder for many presenting complaints. Females are overrepresented, and the disease often appears in middle age (4–7 yr), although any age or either gender may be affected.

Hypoadrenocorticism is treated with fludrocortisone or a monthly injection called Percorten V (desoxycorticosterone pivlate (DOCP)) and prednisone. Routine blood work is necessary in the initial stages until a maintenance dose is established. Most of the medications used in the therapy of hypoadrenocorticism cause excessive thirst and urination, making it important to provide enough drinking water. If the owner knows about an upcoming stressful situation (shows, traveling, etc.), patients generally need an increased dose of prednisone to help deal with the added stress. Avoidance of stress is important for dogs with hypoadrenocorticism.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Adrenal Insufficiency and Addison's Disease". NIDDK. May 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
  2. 1 2 Adam, Andy (2014). Grainger & Allison's Diagnostic Radiology (6 ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 1031. ISBN 9780702061288.
  3. ↑ Napier, C; Pearce, SH (June 2014). "Current and emerging therapies for Addison's disease.". Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity. 21 (3): 147–53. doi:10.1097/med.0000000000000067. PMID 24755997.
  4. ↑ Napier, C; Pearce, SH (December 2012). "Autoimmune Addison's disease.". Presse medicale (Paris, France : 1983). 41 (12 P 2): e626–35. doi:10.1016/j.lpm.2012.09.010. PMID 23177474.
  5. 1 2 Brandão Neto, RA; de Carvalho, JF (2014). "Diagnosis and classification of Addison's disease (autoimmune adrenalitis).". Autoimmunity reviews. 13 (4-5): 408–11. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.025. PMID 24424183.
  6. ↑ Rajagopalan, Murray Longmore, Ian B. Wilkinson, Supraj R. (2006). Mini Oxford handbook of clinical medicine (6 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 312. ISBN 9780198570714.
  7. ↑ Rose, Noel R.; Mackay, Ian R. (2014). The autoimmune diseases (5 ed.). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Science. p. 605. ISBN 9780123849304.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ten S, New M, Maclaren N (2001). "Clinical review 130: Addison's disease 2001". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86 (7): 2909–2922. doi:10.1210/jc.86.7.2909. PMID 11443143.
  9. ↑ Nieman LK, Chanco Turner ML (2006). "Addison's disease". Clinics in Dermatology. 24 (4): 276–280. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2006.04.006. PMID 16828409.
  10. ↑ de Herder WW, van der Lely AJ (May 2003). "Addisonian crisis and relative adrenal failure". Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. 4 (2): 143–7. doi:10.1023/A:1022938019091. PMID 12766542.
  11. ↑ "Addison's Disease". National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service. Retrieved 26 October 2007.
  12. ↑ Winqvist O, Karlsson FA, Kämpe O (June 1992). "21-Hydroxylase, a major autoantigen in idiopathic Addison's disease". The Lancet. 339 (8809): 1559–62. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)91829-W. PMID 1351548.
  13. ↑ Husebye ES, Perheentupa J, Rautemaa R, Kämpe O (May 2009). "Clinical manifestations and management of patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I". Journal of Internal Medicine. 265 (5): 514–29. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2009.02090.x. PMID 19382991.
  14. ↑ Kennedy, Ron. "Addison's Disease". The Doctors' Medical Library.
  15. ↑ Laureti S, Casucci G, Santeusanio F, Angeletti G, Aubourg P, Brunetti P (1996). "X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy is a frequent cause of idiopathic Addison's disease in young adult male patient". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 81 (2): 470–474. doi:10.1210/jc.81.2.470. PMID 8636252.
  16. ↑ Quinkler M, Dahlqvist P, Husebye ES, Kämpe O (Jan 2015). "A European Emergency Card for adrenal insufficiency can save lives". Eur J Intern Med. 26 (1): 75–6. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2014.11.006. PMID 25498511.
  17. 1 2 3 Michels A, Michels N (1 Apr 2014). "Addison disease: early detection and treatment principles". Am Fam Physician. 89 (7): 563–8. PMID 24695602.
  18. ↑ White, Katherine (28 July 2004). "What to do in an emergency -Addisonian crisis". Addison's Disease Self Help Group.
  19. ↑ "Adrenal Insufficiency and Addison's Disease". National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
  20. ↑ "Addison Disease". MedicineNet. Archived from the original on 24 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  21. 1 2 Odeke, Sylvester. "Addison Disease". eMedicine. Archived from the original on 7 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  22. ↑ Volpé, Robert (1990). Autoimmune Diseases of the Endocrine System. CRC Press. p. 299. ISBN 0-8493-6849-9.
  23. ↑ "Addison's disease - Treatment". NHS Choices. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  24. ↑ Bergthorsdottir, Ragnhildur; Leonsson-Zachrisson, Maria; Odén, Anders; Johannsson, Gudmundur (2006-12-01). "Premature Mortality in Patients with Addison's Disease: A Population-Based Study". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 91 (12): 4849–4853. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-0076. ISSN 0021-972X.
  25. ↑ Dimitrios Chantzichristos; Anders Persson; Björn Eliasson; Mervete Miftaraj; Stefan Franzén; Ragnhildur Bergthorsdottir; Soffia Gudbjörnsdottir; Ann-Marie Svensson; Gudmundur Johannsson (2016-04-01). Cushing Syndrome and Primary Adrenal Disorders. Meeting Abstracts. Endocrine Society. pp. OR25–4–OR25–4. doi:10.1210/endo-meetings.2016.ahpaa.9.or25-4.
  26. ↑ Addison, Thomas (1855). On The Constitutional And Local Effects Of Disease Of The Supra-Renal Capsules. London: Samuel Highley.
  27. ↑ Patnaik MM, Deshpande AK (May 2008). "Diagnosis–Addison's Disease Secondary to Tuberculosis of the Adrenal Glands". Clinical Medicine & Research. 6 (1): 29. doi:10.3121/cmr.2007.754a. PMC 2442022Freely accessible. PMID 18591375.
  28. ↑ Bishop PM (1950). "The history of the discovery of Addison's disease". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 43 (1): 35–42. PMC 2081266Freely accessible. PMID 15409948.
  29. ↑ Nicholas JA, Burstein CL, Umberger CJ, Wilson PD (November 1955). "Management of adrenocortical insufficiency during surgery". JAMA Surgery. 71 (5): 737–742. doi:10.1001/archsurg.1955.01270170095018. PMID 13268224.
  30. ↑ Lord Owen (May 2003). "Diseased, demented, depressed: serious illness in Heads of State". QJM. 96 (5): 325–36. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcg061. PMID 12702781.
  31. ↑ Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963. London: Penguin Books. pp. 105, 731. ISBN 978-0-14-101535-4.
  32. ↑ "The Australian Addison's Disease Association". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  33. ↑ Marsden, Brian (1997-07-18). "Eugene Shoemaker (1928-1997)". Comet Shoemaker-Levy Collision with Jupiter. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  34. ↑ Jones, Terry. "Patron Saints Index: Blessed Elizabeth of the Trinity". Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
  35. ↑ Upfal, Annette (2005). "Jane Austen's lifelong health problems and final illness: New evidence points to a fatal Hodgkin's disease and excludes the widely accepted Addison's". Medical Humanities. BMJ Publishing Group. 31 (1): 3–11. doi:10.1136/jmh.2004.000193.
  36. ↑ Williams, Linda; Hawes, Donald; Brake, Laurel (1991). "The Nineteenth Century: Victorian Period". The Year's Work in English Studies. Oxford University Press. 72 (1): 314–360. doi:10.1093/ywes/72.1.314.
  37. ↑ Chersterton, Ray (11 May 2007). "The cruelty of sport". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  38. ↑ Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower. New York City: Knopf. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2.
  39. ↑ Season 1, episode 4 of Pitch Slapped broadcast on Lifetime
  40. ↑ "Addison's disease makes Gafuik a fighter". The Globe and Mail. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.

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