List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed.

Detection

The molecules listed below were detected by spectroscopy. Their spectral features are generated by transitions of component electrons between different energy levels, or by rotational or vibrational spectra. Detection usually occurs in radio, microwave, or infrared portions of the spectrum.[1]

Interstellar molecules are formed by chemical reactions within very sparse interstellar or circumstellar clouds of dust and gas. Usually this occurs when a molecule becomes ionized, often as the result of an interaction with a cosmic ray. This positively charged molecule then draws in a nearby reactant by electrostatic attraction of the neutral molecule's electrons. Molecules can also be generated by reactions between neutral atoms and molecules, although this process is generally slower.[2] The dust plays a critical role of shielding the molecules from the ionizing effect of ultraviolet radiation emitted by stars.[3]

History

The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.[4][5]

The first carbon-containing molecule detected in the interstellar medium was the methylidyne radical (CH) in 1937.[6] From the early 1970s it was becoming evident that interstellar dust consisted of a large component of more complex organic molecules (COMs),[7] probably polymers. Chandra Wickramasinghe proposed the existence of polymeric composition based on the molecule formaldehyde (H2CO).[8] Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe later proposed the identification of bicyclic aromatic compounds from an analysis of the ultraviolet extinction absorption at 2175 Å,[9] thus demonstrating the existence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon molecules in space.

In 2004, scientists reported[10] detecting the spectral signatures of anthracene and pyrene in the ultraviolet light emitted by the Red Rectangle nebula (no other such complex molecules had ever been found before in outer space). This discovery was considered a confirmation of a hypothesis that as nebulae of the same type as the Red Rectangle approach the ends of their lives, convection currents cause carbon and hydrogen in the nebulae's core to get caught in stellar winds, and radiate outward.[11] As they cool, the atoms supposedly bond to each other in various ways and eventually form particles of a million or more atoms. The scientists inferred[10] that since they discovered polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) — which may have been vital in the formation of early life on Earth — in a nebula, by necessity they must originate in nebulae.[11]

In 2010, fullerenes (or "buckyballs") were detected in nebulae.[12] Fullerenes have been implicated in the origin of life; according to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It's possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth."[13]

In October 2011, scientists found using spectroscopy that cosmic dust contains complex organic compounds ("amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.[14][15][16] The compounds are so complex that their chemical structures resemble the makeup of coal and petroleum; such chemical complexity was previously thought to arise only from living organisms.[14] These observations suggest that organic compounds introduced on Earth by interstellar dust particles could serve as basic ingredients for life due to their surface-catalytic activities.[17][18] One of the scientists suggested that these compounds may have been related to the development of life on Earth and said that, "If this is the case, life on Earth may have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve as basic ingredients for life."[14]

In August 2012, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system. The molecule was found around the protostellar binary IRAS 16293-2422, which is located 400 light years from Earth.[19][20] Glycolaldehyde is needed to form ribonucleic acid, or RNA, which is similar in function to DNA. This finding suggests that complex organic molecules may form in stellar systems prior to the formation of planets, eventually arriving on young planets early in their formation.[21]

In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that PAHs, subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation, and hydroxylation, to more complex organics — "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively".[22][23] Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains, particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."[22][23]

PAHs are found everywhere in deep space[24] and, in June 2013, PAHs were detected in the upper atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of the planet Saturn.[25]

In 2013, Dwayne Heard at the University of Leeds suggested[26] that quantum mechanical tunneling could explain a reaction his group observed taking place, at a significantly higher than expected rate, between cold (around 63 Kelvin) hydroxyl and methanol molecules, apparently bypassing intramolecular energy barriers which would have to be overcome by thermal energy or ionization events for the same rate to exist at warmer temperatures. The proposed tunneling mechanism may help explain the common observation of fairly complex molecules (up to tens of atoms) in interstellar space.

A particularly large and rich region for detecting interstellar molecules is Sagittarius B2 (Sgr B2). This giant molecular cloud lies near the center of the Milky Way galaxy and is a frequent target for new searches. About half of the molecules listed below were first found near Sgr B2, and nearly every other molecule has since been detected in this feature.[27] A rich source of investigation for circumstellar molecules is the relatively nearby star CW Leonis (IRC +10216), where about 50 compounds have been identified.[28]

In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.[29]

In October 2016, astronomers reported that the very basic chemical ingredients of life—the carbon-hydrogen molecule (CH, or methylidyne radical), the carbon-hydrogen positive ion (CH+) and the carbon ion (C+)—are the result, in large part, of ultraviolet light from stars, rather than in other ways, such as the result of turbulent events related to supernovae and young stars, as thought earlier.[30][31]

Theoretical models

To explain the observed ratios of isomeric compounds, the minimum energy principle has been used. In the majority of cases, it explains that some organic entities have greater abundance than their isomers due to the lower total energies of the first one. However, a few exceptions where the principle fails are also known.[32]

Another approach ignores energy and deals only with the molecular complexity estimated by the information entropy index. It speculates that the points of several natural compounds (urea, pyrimidine, dihydroxyacetone, uracil, cytosine, glycine, and alanine) fall into the range of the values typical for the known interstellar molecules that indicates high probability of their detection in interstellar environment. Additionally the molecules with maximal information entropy, i.e. the most complex compounds, make up approximately a half of the interstellar set and their percentage is decreased with the size. This trend may be associated with the different stabilities of the molecules with uniform (usually more stable) and diversified (usually less stable) chemical structures, so the detectable molecules with a large size must possess symmetric structure more probably than non-symmetric. The remarkable detection of low-entropy (highly symmetric) fullerene molecules supports this assumption. It is also noted that information entropy reflects the depth of hydrogenation of interstellar entities: the molecules with maximal information entropy are hydrogen-poor whereas the others are mainly hydrogen-rich.[33]

Molecules

The following tables list molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium, grouped by the number of component atoms. If there is no entry in the molecule column, only the ionized form has been detected. For molecules where no designation was given in the scientific literature, that field is left empty. Mass is given in atomic mass units. The total number of unique species, including distinct ionization states, is listed in parentheses in each section header.

Most of the molecules detected so far are organic. Only one inorganic species has been observed in molecules which contain at least five atoms, SiH4.[34] Larger molecules have so far all had at least one carbon atom, with no N−N or O−O bonds.[34]

Carbon monoxide is frequently used to trace the distribution of mass in molecular clouds.[35]

Diatomic (43)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
AlClAluminium monochloride[36][37] 62.5—
AlFAluminium monofluoride[36][38] 46—
AlOAluminium monoxide[39] 43—
—Argonium[40][41] 41ArH+
C2Diatomic carbon[42][43] 24—
—Fluoromethylidynium 31CF+[44]
CHMethylidyne radical[30][45] 13CH+[46]
CNCyanogen radical[36][45][47][48] 26CN+,[49] CN−[50]
COCarbon monoxide[36][51][52] 28CO+[53]
CPCarbon monophosphide[48] 43—
CSCarbon monosulfide[36] 44—
FeOIron(II) oxide[54] 82—
H2Molecular hydrogen[55] 2—
HClHydrogen chloride[56] 36.5HCl+[57]
HFHydrogen fluoride[58] 20—
HOHydroxyl radical[36] 17OH+[59]
KClPotassium chloride[36][37] 75.5—
NHNitrogen monohydride[60][61] 15—
N2Molecular nitrogen[62][63] 28—
NONitric oxide[64] 30NO+[49]
NSNitrogen sulfide[36] 46—
NaClSodium chloride[36][37] 58.5—
—Magnesium monohydride cation 25.3MgH+[49]
NaISodium iodide[65] 150—
O2Molecular oxygen[66] 32—
PNPhosphorus mononitride[67] 45—
POPhosphorus monoxide[68] 47—
SHSulfur monohydride[69] 33SH+[70]
SOSulfur monoxide[36] 48SO+[46]
SiCCarborundum[36][71] 40—
SiNSilicon mononitride[36] 42—
SiOSilicon monoxide[36] 44—
SiSSilicon monosulfide[36] 60—
TiOTitanium oxide[72] 63.9—
The H+
3 cation is one of the most abundant ions in the universe. It was first detected in 1993.[73][74]

Triatomic (43)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
AlNCAluminium isocyanide[36] 53—
AlOHAluminium hydroxide[75] 44—
C3Tricarbon[43] 36—
C2HEthynyl radical[36][47] 25—
CCNCyanomethylidyne[76] 38—
C2ODicarbon monoxide[77] 40—
C2SThioxoethenylidene[78] 56—
C2P—[79] 55—
CO2Carbon dioxide[80] 44—
FeCNIron cyanide[81] 82—
—Protonated molecular hydrogen 3H+
3[73][74]
H2CMethylene radical[82] 14—
—Chloronium 37.5H2Cl+[83]
H2OWater[84] 18H2O+[85]
HO2Hydroperoxyl[86] 33—
H2SHydrogen sulfide[36] 34—
HCNHydrogen cyanide[36][47][87] 27—
HNCHydrogen isocyanide[88] 27—
HCOFormyl radical[89] 29HCO+[46][89][90]
HCPPhosphaethyne[91] 44—
—Thioformyl 45HCS+[46][90]
HNCHydrogen isocyanide[92] 27—
—Diazenylium 29HN+
2[90]
HNONitroxyl[93] 31—
—Isoformyl 29HOC+[47]
KCNPotassium cyanide[36] 65—
MgCNMagnesium cyanide[36] 50—
MgNCMagnesium isocyanide[36] 50—
NH2Amino radical[94] 16—
—Diazenylium 29N2H+[46][95]
N2ONitrous oxide[96] 44—
NaCNSodium cyanide[36] 49—
NaOHSodium hydroxide[97] 40—
OCSCarbonyl sulfide[98] 60—
O3Ozone[99] 48—
SO2Sulfur dioxide[36][100] 64—
c-SiC2c-Silicon dicarbide[36][71] 52—
SiCSiDisilicon carbide[101] 68—
SiCNSilicon carbonitride[102] 54—
SiNC[103] 54—
TiO2Titanium dioxide[72] 79.9—
Formaldehyde is an organic molecule that is widely distributed in the interstellar medium.[104]

Four atoms (27)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
CH3Methyl radical[105] 15—
l-C3HPropynylidyne[36][106] 37l-C3H+[107]
c-C3HCyclopropynylidyne[108] 37—
C3NCyanoethynyl[109] 50C3N−[110]
C3OTricarbon monoxide[106] 52—
C3STricarbon sulfide[36][78] 68—
—Hydronium 19H3O+[111]
C2H2Acetylene[112] 26—
H2CNMethylene amidogen[113] 28H2CN+[46]
H2COFormaldehyde[104] 30—
H2CSThioformaldehyde[114] 46—
HCCN—[115] 39—
HCCOKetenyl[116] 41—
—Protonated hydrogen cyanide 28HCNH+[90]
—Protonated carbon dioxide 45HOCO+[117]
HCNOFulminic acid[118] 43—
HOCNCyanic acid[119] 43—
HOOHHydrogen peroxide[120] 34—
HNCOIsocyanic acid[100] 43—
HNCSIsothiocyanic acid[121] 59—
NH3Ammonia[36][122] 17—
HSCNThiocyanic acid[123] 59—
SiC3Silicon tricarbide[36]  64—
HMgNCHydromagnesium isocyanide[124]  51.3—
Methane, the primary component of natural gas, has also been detected on comets and in the atmosphere of several planets in the Solar System.[125]

Five atoms (19)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
—Ammonium ion[126][127]  18NH+
4
CH4Methane[128] 16—
CH3OMethoxy radical[129] 31—
c-C3H2Cyclopropenylidene[47][130][131] 38—
l-H2C3Propadienylidene[131] 38—
H2CCNCyanomethyl[132] 40—
H2C2OKetene[100] 42—
H2CNHMethylenimine[133] 29—
HNCNHCarbodiimide[134] 42—
—Protonated formaldehyde 31H2COH+[135]
C4HButadiynyl[36] 49C4H−[136]
HC3NCyanoacetylene[36][47][90][137][138] 51—
HCC-NCIsocyanoacetylene[139] 51—
HCOOHFormic acid[140][137] 46—
NH2CNCyanamide[141] 42—
—Protonated cyanogen 53NCCNH+[142]
HC(O)CNCyanoformaldehyde[143] 55—
SiC4Silicon-carbide cluster[71] 92—
SiH4Silane[144] 32—
In the ISM, formamide (above) can combine with methylene to form acetamide.[145]

Six atoms (16)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
c-H2C3OCyclopropenone[146] 54—
E-HNCHCNE-Cyanomethanimine[147] 54—
C2H4Ethylene[148] 28—
CH3CNAcetonitrile[100][149][150] 40—
CH3NCMethyl isocyanide[149] 40—
CH3OHMethanol[100][151] 32—
CH3SHMethanethiol[152] 48—
l-H2C4Diacetylene[36][153] 50—
—Protonated cyanoacetylene 52HC3NH+[90]
HCONH2Formamide[145] 44—
C5HPentynylidyne[36][78] 61—
C5NCyanobutadiynyl radical[154] 74—
HC2CHOPropynal[155] 54—
HC4N—[36]  63—
CH2CNHKetenimine[130] 40—
C5S—[156] 92—
Acetaldehyde (above) and its isomers vinyl alcohol and ethylene oxide have all been detected in interstellar space.[157]

Seven atoms (10)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
c-C2H4OEthylene oxide[158] 44—
CH3C2HMethylacetylene[47] 40—
H3CNH2Methylamine[159] 31—
CH2CHCNAcrylonitrile[100][149] 53—
H2CHCOHVinyl alcohol[157] 44—
C6HHexatriynyl radical[36][78] 73C6H−[131][160]
HC4CNCyanodiacetylene[100][138][149] 75—
CH3CHOAcetaldehyde[36][158] 44—
CH3NCOMethyl isocyanate[161] 57—
The radio signature of acetic acid, a compound found in vinegar, was confirmed in 1997.[162]

Eight atoms (11)

MoleculeDesignationMass
H3CC2CNMethylcyanoacetylene[163] 65
H2COHCHOGlycolaldehyde[164] 60
HCOOCH3Methyl formate[100][137][164] 60
CH3COOHAcetic acid[162] 60
H2C6Hexapentaenylidene[36][153] 74
CH2CHCHOPropenal[130] 56
CH2CCHCNCyanoallene[130][163] 65
CH3CHNHEthanimine[165] 43
C7HHeptatrienyl radical[166] 85
NH2CH2CNAminoacetonitrile[167] 56
(NH2)2COUrea[168] 60

Nine atoms (10)

MoleculeDesignationMassIons
CH3C4HMethyldiacetylene[169] 64—
CH3OCH3Dimethyl Ether[170] 46—
CH3CH2CNPropionitrile[36][100][149] 55—
CH3CONH2Acetamide[130][145] 59—
CH3CH2OHEthanol[171] 46—
C8HOctatetraynyl radical[172] 97C8H−[173][174]
HC7NCyanohexatriyne or Cyanotriacetylene[36][122][175][176] 99—
CH3CHCH2Propylene (propene)[177] 42—
CH3CH2SHEthyl mercaptan[178] 62—
Diacetylene, HCCCCH
Methyldiacetylene, HCCCCCH3
Cyanotetraacetylene, HCCCCCCCCCN
A number of polyyne-derived chemicals are among the heaviest molecules found in the interstellar medium.

Ten or more atoms (15)

AtomsMoleculeDesignationMassIons
10(CH3)2COAcetone[100][179] 58—
10(CH2OH)2Ethylene glycol[180][181] 62—
10CH3CH2CHOPropanal[130] 58—
10CH3C5NMethyl-cyano-diacetylene[130] 89—
10CH3CHCH2O Propylene oxide[182] 58—
11HC8CNCyanotetra-acetylene[36][175] 123—
11C2H5OCHOEthyl formate[183] 74—
11CH3COOCH3Methyl acetate[184] 74—
11CH3C6HMethyltriacetylene[130][169] 88—
12C6H6Benzene[153] 78—
12C3H7CNn-Propyl cyanide[183] 69—
12 (CH3)2CHCN iso-Propyl cyanide[185][186] 69—
13HC10CNCyanodecapentayne[175] 147—
13HC11NCyanopentaacetylene[175] 159—
60C60Buckminsterfullerene
(C60 fullerene)[187]		720C+
60[188][189]
70C70C70 fullerene[187]840—

Deuterated molecules (20)

These molecules all contain one or more deuterium atoms, a heavier isotope of hydrogen.

AtomsMoleculeDesignation
2HDHydrogen deuteride[190][191]
3H2D+, HD+
2		Trihydrogen cation[190][191]
3HDO, D2OHeavy water[192][193]
3DCNHydrogen cyanide[194]
3DCOFormyl radical[194]
3DNCHydrogen isocyanide[194]
3N2D+—[194] 
4NH2D, NHD2, ND3Ammonia[191][195][196]
4HDCO, D2COFormaldehyde[191][197]
4DNCO Isocyanic acid[198]
5NH3D+Ammonium ion[199][200]
6 NH
2CDO; NHDCHO 		Formamide[198]
7CH2DCCH, CH3CCDMethylacetylene[201][202]

Unconfirmed (13)

Evidence for the existence of the following molecules has been reported in scientific literature, but the detections are either described as tentative by the authors, or have been challenged by other researchers. They await independent confirmation.

AtomsMoleculeDesignation
2SiHSilylidine[88]
4PH3Phosphine[203]
4MgCCHMagnesium monoacetylide[156]
4NCCPCyanophosphaethyne[156]
5C5Linear C5[43]
5H2NCO+—[204]
4SiH3CNSilyl cyanide[156]
10H2NH2CCOOHGlycine[205][206]
12CO(CH2OH)2Dihydroxyacetone[207]
12C2H5OCH3Ethyl methyl ether[208]
18C
10H+
8		Naphthalene cation[209]
24C24Graphene[210]
24C14H10Anthracene[10][211]
26C16H10Pyrene[10]

See also

References

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  2. ↑ Dalgarno, A. (2006), "Interstellar Chemistry Special Feature: The galactic cosmic ray ionization rate", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103 (33): 12269–12273, Bibcode:2006PNAS..10312269D, doi:10.1073/pnas.0602117103, PMC 1567869Freely accessible, PMID 16894166
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  9. ↑ F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, Identification of the lambda 2200Å interstellar absorption feature, Nature, 270, 323, 1977
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  23. 1 2 Gudipati, Murthy S.; Yang, Rui (September 1, 2012). "In-Situ Probing Of Radiation-Induced Processing Of Organics In Astrophysical Ice Analogs—Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectroscopic Studies". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 756 (1): L24. Bibcode:2012ApJ...756L..24G. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
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