Mapuche language

Mapudungun
Native to Chile, Argentina
Ethnicity 600,000 Mapuche (2002)[1]
Native speakers
 260,000 (2007)[1]
Araucanian
  • Mapudungun
Official status
Official language in
 Galvarino (Chile)[2]
Language codes
ISO 639-2 arn
ISO 639-3 arn
Glottolog mapu1245[3]

Core region of mapuche population 2002 by counties.

Orange: rural Mapuche; Dark: urban Mapuche; White: non-Mapuche inhabitants

Surfaces of circles are adjusted to 40 inhabitants/km2.

Mapudungun[4] (from mapu 'earth, land' and dungun 'speak, speech') is a language isolate spoken in south-central Chile and west central Argentina by the Mapuche people (from mapu 'earth' and che 'people'). It is also spelled Mapuzugun and Mapudungu. It was formerly known as Araucanian,[4] the name given to the Mapuche by the Spaniards; the Mapuche avoid it as a remnant of Spanish colonialism, and it is considered offensive.

Mapudungun is not an official language of Chile or Argentina and has received virtually no government support throughout its history. It is not used as a language of instruction in either country’s educational system despite the Chilean government's commitment to provide full access to education in Mapuche areas in southern Chile. There is an ongoing political debate over which alphabet to use as the standard alphabet of written Mapudungun. There are approximately 144,000 native speakers in Chile and another 8,400 in west central Argentina. Only 2.4% of urban speakers and 16% of rural speakers use Mapudungun when speaking with children, but only 3.8% of speakers aged 10–19 years in the south of Chile (the language’s stronghold) are "highly competent" in the language.[5]

History

See also: Mapuche history

When the Spanish arrived in Chile, they found four groups of Mapuche speakers in the region of Araucanía, from which the Spanish called them araucanos: the Picunche people (from pikum 'north' and che 'people'), the Huilliche people (from willi 'south'), the Pehuenche people (from pewen "monkey puzzle tree" Araucaria araucana), and the Moluche people (from molu "west"). The Picunche were conquered quite rapidly by the Spanish, whereas the Huilliche were not assimilated until the 18th century. Mapudungun was the only language spoken in central Chile. The sociolinguistic situation of the Mapuche has changed rapidly. Now, nearly all of Mapuche people are bilingual or monolingual in Spanish. The degree of bilingualism depends on the community, participation in Chilean society, and the individual's choice towards the traditional or modern/urban way of life.[6]

There is some lexical influence from the Quechuan languages (pataka 'hundred', warangka 'thousand') and Spanish.

Dialects

Dialect sub-groups




I

II


III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII



Cladogram showing the closeness of Mapuche dialect sub-groups based on shared features according to Robert A. Croese. Dialect sub-groups are roughly ordered from their geographical distribution from north to south.[7]

Linguist Robert A. Croese divides Mapudungun into eight dialectal sub-groups (I-VIII). Sub-group I is centered in Arauco Province, Sub-group II is the dialect of Angol, Los Ángeles and the middle and lower Bío Bío River. Sub-group III is centered around Purén. In the areas around Lonquimay, Melipeuco and Allipén River dialect sub-group IV is spoken. Sub-group V is spoken at the coast of Araucanía Region including Queule, Budi Lake and Toltén. Around Temuco, Freire and Gorbea the sub-group VI is spoken. Group VII is spoken in Valdivia Province plus Pucón and Curarrehue. The last "dialect" sub-group is VIII which is the Huilliche language spoken from Lago Ranco and Río Bueno to the south and is not mutually intelligible with the other dialects.[7]

These can be grouped in four dialect groups: north, central, south-central and south. These are further divided into eight sub-groups: I and II (northern), III–IV (central), V-VII (south-central) and VIII (southern). The sub-groups III-VII are more closely related to each other than they are to I-II and VIII. Croese finds these relationships as consistent, but not proof, with the theory of origin of the Mapuche proposed by Ricardo E. Latcham.[7]

The Mapudungun spoken in the Argentinean provinces of Neuquen and Rio Negro is similar to that of the central dialect group in Chile, while the Ranquel (Ranku ̈lche) variety spoken in the Argentinean province of La Pampa is closer to the northern dialect group.[8]

Names

Depending on the alphabet, the sound /tʃ/ is spelled ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨c⟩, and /ŋ/ as ⟨g⟩ or ⟨ng⟩. The language is called either the "speech (d/zuŋun) of the earth (mapu)" or the "speech of the people (tʃe)". An ⟨n⟩ may connect the two words. There are thus several ways to write the name of the language:

Alphabet Mapu with N Mapu without N Che/Ce with N Che/Ce without N
Ragileo Mapunzugun[9] Mapuzugun Cenzugun Cezugun
Unified Mapundungun Mapudungun Chendungun Chedungun
Azümchefe Mapunzugun Mapuzugun Chenzugun Chezugun

Phonology

Prosody

Mapudungun has partially predictable, non-contrastive stress. The stressed syllable is generally the last one if it is closed (awkán 'game', tralkán 'thunder'), and the one before last if the last one is open (rúka 'house', lóngko 'head'). There is no phonemic tone.

Vowels

Stressed monophthongs of Mapudungun, from Sadowsky et al. (2013:92)
 Mapuche vowel phonemes[10]
Front Central Back
unrounded unrounded rounded
Near-close ɪ ʊ
Close-mid e ɘ o
Near-open ɐ

/ɘ/ is spelled ⟨ï⟩, ⟨ü⟩, or ⟨v⟩, depending on the alphabet.

Consonants

 Mapuche consonant phonemes[5]
Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar
Nasal m n̪ n ɲ ŋ
Plosive/
Affricate		 voiceless p t̪ t tʃ ʈʂ k
Fricative voiceless f θ s ʃ
voiced ɻ j p
Approximant central w
lateral l̪ l ʎ

Orthography

Main article: Mapudungun alphabet
Graffiti in Mapudungun meaning "War Council".

The Mapuche had no writing system before the Spanish arrived, but the language is now written with the Latin script. Although the orthography used in this article is based on the Alfabeto Mapuche Unificado, the system used by Chilean linguists and other people in many publications in the language, the competing Ragileo, Nhewenh and Azumchefi systems all have their supporters, and there is still no consensus among authorities, linguists and Mapuche communities. The same word can look very different in each system, with the word for "conversation or story" being written either gvxam or ngütram, for example.[16]

Microsoft lawsuit

In late 2006, Mapuche leaders threatened to sue Microsoft when the latter completed a translation of their Windows operating system into Mapudungun. They claimed that Microsoft needed permission to do so and had not sought it.[17][18] The event can be seen in the light of the greater political struggle concerning the alphabet that should become the standard alphabet of the Mapuche people.

Morphology

The indicative present paradigm for an intransitive verb like konün 'enter' is as follows:

Number
Singular Dual Plural
Person First konün

( ← kon-n)

 koniyu

( ← kon-i-i-u)

 koniyiñ

( ← kon-i-i-n)

Second konimi

( ← kon-i-m-i)

 konimu

( ← kon-i-m-u)

 konimün

( ← kon-i-m-n)

Third koni

( ← kon-i-0-0)

 koningu

( ← kon-i-ng-u)

 koningün

( ← kon-i-ng-n)

What some authors have described as an inverse system (similar to the ones described for Algonquian languages) can be seen from the forms of a transitive verb like pen 'see'. The 'intransitive' forms are the following:

Number
Singular Dual Plural
Person First pen

( ← pe-n)

 peyu

( ← pe-i-i-u)

 peiñ

( ← pe-i-i-n)

Second peymi

( ← pe-i-m-i)

 peymu

( ← pe-i-m-u)

 peymün

( ← pe-i-m-n)

Third pey

( ← pe-i-0-0)

 peyngu

( ← pe-i-ng-u)

 peyngün

( ← pe-i-ng-n)

The 'transitive' forms are the following (only singular forms are provided here):

Agent
First Second Third
Patient First pewün

( ← pe-w-n)

 peen

( ← pe-e-n)

 peenew

( ← pe-e-n-mew)

Second peeyu

( ← pe-e-i-u)

 pewimu

( ← pe-w-i-m-u)

 peeymew

( ← pe-e-i-m-i-mew)

Third pefiñ

( ← pe-fi-n)

 pefimi

( ← pe-fi-i-m-i)

 DIR pefi / INV peeyew / REFL pewi

( ← pe-fi-i-0-0 / pe-e-i-0-0-mew / pe-w-i-0-0)

When a third person interacts with a first or second person, the forms are direct (without -e) or inverse (with -e); the speaker has no choice. When two third persons interact, two different forms are available: the direct form (pefi) is appropriate when the agent is topical (the central figure in that particular passage). The inverse form (peenew) is appropriate when the patient is topical. Thus, chi wentru pefi chi domo means 'the man saw the woman' while chi wentru peeyew chi domo means something like 'the man was seen by the woman'. However, that it is not a passive construction; the passive would be chi wentru pengey 'the man was seen; someone saw the man'.

Studies

Older works

The formalization and normalization of Mapudungun was effected by the first Mapudungun grammar published by the Jesuit priest Luis de Valdivia in 1606 (Arte y Gramatica General de la Lengva que Corre en Todo el Reyno de Chile). More important is the Arte de la Lengua General del Reyno de Chile by the Jesuit Andrés Febrés (1765, Lima) composed of a grammar and dictionary. In 1776 three volumes in Latin were published in Westfalia (Chilidúgú sive Res Chilenses) by the German Jesuit Bernardo Havestadt. The work by Febrés was used as a basic preparation from 1810 for missionary priests going into the regions occupied by the Mapuche people. A corrected version was completed in 1846 and a summary, without a dictionary in 1864. A work based on Febrés' book is the Breve Metodo della Lingua Araucana y Dizionario Italo-Araucano e Viceversa by the Italian Octaviano de Niza in 1888. It was destroyed in a fire at the Convento de San Francisco in Valdivia in 1928.

Modern works

The most comprehensive works to date are the ones by Augusta (1903, 1916). Salas (1992, 2006) is an introduction for non-specialists, featuring an ethnographic introduction and a valuable text collection as well. Zúñiga (2006) includes a complete grammatical description, a bilingual dictionary, some texts and an audio CD with text recordings (educational material, a traditional folktale and six contemporary poems). Smeets (1989) and Zúñiga (2000) are for specialists only. Fernández-Garay (2005) introduces both the language and the culture. Catrileo (1995) and the dictionaries by Hernández & Ramos are trilingual (Spanish, English and Mapudungun).

Dictionaries

Mapudungun language courses

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Mapudungun at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. ↑ "Galvarino es la primera comuna de Chile en establecer el mapudungún como su idioma oficial". Radio Bío-Bío (in Spanish). 7 August 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  3. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Mapudungun". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  4. 1 2 Heggarty, P.; Beresford-Jones, D. (2013). "Andes: linguistic history.". In Ness, I.; P., Bellwood. The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 401–409.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 88.
  6. 1 2 Gruyter, Mouton. A Grammar of Mapuche. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH and Co., 2008. Print.
  7. 1 2 3 Croese, Robert A. (1985). "21. Mapuche Dialect Survey". In Manelis Klein, Harriet; Stark, Louisa R. South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. pp. 784–801. ISBN 0-292-77592-X.
  8. ↑ Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 87.
  9. ↑ La Nacion (Chile)
  10. 1 2 3 4 Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 92.
  11. ↑ Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 92–94.
  12. ↑ Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 88–89.
  13. 1 2 3 Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 91.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 89.
  15. ↑ Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 90.
  16. ↑ "LOS DIFERENTES GRAFEMARIOS Y ALFABETOS DEL MAPUDUNGUN"
  17. ↑
  18. ↑ Guerra idiomática entre los indígenas mapuches de Chile y Microsoft. El Mundo / Gideon Long (Reuters), 28 November 2006
  19. ↑ http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_map

Bibliography

  • Aprueban alfabeto mapuche único (Oct 19, 1999). El Mercurio de Santiago.
  • Campbell, Lyle (1997) American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (2005) Encuesta Complementaria de Pueblos Indígenas (ECPI), 2004-2005 - Primeros resultados provisionales. Buenos Aires: INDEC. ISSN 0327-7968.
  • Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369 
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