Religion in Africa

Religion in Africa is multifaceted and has been a major influence on art, culture and philosophy. Today, the continent's various populations and individuals are mostly adherents of Christianity, Islam, and to a lesser extent Traditional African religion. In Christian or Islamic communities, religious beliefs are also sometimes characterized with syncretism with the beliefs and practices of traditional religions.[1][2][3]

African Traditional Religion

Early 20th century Yoruba divination board
Vodun altar in Abomey, Benin

Africa encompasses a wide variety of traditional beliefs. Although religious customs are sometimes shared by many local societies, they are usually unique to specific populations or geographic regions.[4]

According to Dr J Omosade Awolalu, The "traditional" in this context means indigenous, that which is foundational, handed down from generation to generation, meant as to be upheld and practised today and forevermore. A heritage from the past, yet not treated as a thing of the past but that which connects the past with the present and the present with eternity.[3]

Often spoken of in the terms of a singularity, deliberate; yet conscious of the fact that Africa is a large continent with multitudes of nations who have complex cultures, innumerable languages and myriads of dialects.[3]

The essence of this school of thought is based mainly on oral transmission; that which is written in people's hearts, minds, oral history, customs, temples and religious functions.[5] It has no founders or leaders like Gautama the Buddha, Jesus, Ashoka, or Muhammed.[6] It has no missionaries or the intent to propagate or to proselytise.[7] Some of the African traditional religions are those of the Serer of Senegal, the Yoruba and Igbo of Nigeria, and the Akan of Ghana and the Ivory Coast. The religion of the Gbe peoples (mostly the Ewe and Fon) of Benin, Togo and Ghana is called Vodun and is the main source for similarly named religions in the diaspora, such as Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú and Brazilian Vodum.

Abrahamic religions

The majority of Africans are adherents of Christianity or Islam. African people often combine the practice of their traditional belief with the practice of Abrahamic religions.[8][8][9][10][11][12] Abrahamic religions are widespread throughout Africa. They have both spread and replaced indigenous African religions, but are often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 45%. It was also estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.6%.[13]

Bahá'í Faith

Bahá'í House of Worship, Kampala, Uganda.

The Bahá'í Faith in Africa has a diverse history. It is the 3rd most widespread organized Abrahamic religion in Africa after Islam and Christianity[14] after its wide-scale growth in the 1950s and extend in the 1960s.[15] The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) lists many large and smaller populations in Africa[16] with Kenya, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Africa and Zambia among the top ten numerical populations of Bahá'ís in the world in 2005 (each with over 200,000 adherents), and Mauritius in terms of percentage of the national population.

All three individual heads of the religion, Bahá'u'lláh, `Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi, were in Africa at various times. More recently the roughly 2000[17] Bahá'ís of Egypt have been embroiled in the Egyptian identification card controversy from 2006[18] through 2009.[19] Since then there have been homes burned down and families driven out of towns.[20] On the other hand, Sub-Saharan Bahá'ís were able to mobilize for nine regional conferences called for by the Universal House of Justice 20 October 2008 to celebrate recent achievements in grassroots community-building and to plan their next steps in organizing in their home areas.[21]

Christianity

The Hanging Church of Cairo, Egypt.

Christianity is now the second most widely practiced religion in Africa and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most adherents outside Egypt, Ethiopia and Eritrea are Roman Catholic or Protestant. Several syncretistic and messianic sects have formed throughout much of the continent, including the Nazareth Baptist Church in South Africa and the Aladura churches in Nigeria.There is also fairly widespread populations of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. The oldest Christian denominations in Africa are the Coptic church in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, all Oriental Orthodox, which rose to prominence in the fourth century AD after King Ezana the Great made Ethiopia one of the first Christian nations.[22]

In the first few centuries of Christianity, Africa produced many figures who had a major influence outside the continent, including St Augustine of Hippo, St Maurice, Origen, Tertullian, and three Roman Catholic popes (Victor I, Miltiades and Gelasius I), as well as the Biblical characters Simon of Cyrene and the Ethiopian eunuch baptised by Philip the Evangelist. Christianity existed in Ethiopia before the rule of King Ezana the Great of the Kingdom of Axum, but the religion took a strong foothold when it was declared a state religion in 330 AD, becoming one of the first Christian nations.[23] The earliest and best known reference to the introduction of Christianity to Africa is mentioned in the Christian Bible's Acts of the Apostles, and pertains to the evangelist Phillip's conversion of an Ethiopian traveler in the 1st century AD. Although the Bible refers to them as Ethiopians, scholars have argued that Ethiopia was a common term encompassing the area South-Southeast of Egypt.

Other traditions have the convert as a Jew who was a steward in the Queen’s court. All accounts do agree on the fact that the traveler was a member of the royal court who successfully succeeded in converting the Queen, which in turn caused a church to be built. Tyrannius Rufinus, a noted church historian, also recorded a personal account as do other church historians such as Socrates and Sozemius.[24] Some experts predict the shift of Christianity's center from the European industrialized nations to Africa and Asia in modern times. Yale University historian Lamin Sanneh stated, that "African Christianity was not just an exotic, curious phenomenon in an obscure part of the world, but that African Christianity might be the shape of things to come."[25] The statistics from the World Christian Encyclopedia (David Barrett) illustrate the emerging trend of dramatic Christian growth on the continent and supposes, that in 2025 there will be 633 million Christians in Africa.[26]

Islam

Main article: Islam in Africa
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, erected in 670 by the Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest mosque in North Africa,[27] Kairouan, Tunisia.
Abuja National Mosque in Nigeria.

According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam is the largest religion in Africa,[28] with 47% of the population being Muslim, accounting for 1/4 of the world's Muslim population. The faith's historic roots on the continent stem from the time of the Prophet Muhammad, whose early disciples migrated to Abyssinia (hijira) in fear of persecution from the pagan Arabs.

The spread of Islam in North Africa came with the expansion of Arab empire under Caliph Umar, through the Sinai Peninsula. Spread of Islam in West Africa was through Islamic traders and sailors.

Islam is the dominant religion in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It has also become the predominant religion on the Swahili Coast as well as the West African seaboard and parts of the interior. There have been several Muslim empires in Western Africa which exerted considerable influence, notably the Mali Empire, which flourished for several centuries and the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Mansa Musa, Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed.

The vast majority of Muslims in Africa are Sunni, belonging to either Maliki or Shafi schools of jurisprudence. However, Hanafi school of jurisprudence is also represented, mainly in Egypt.[29] There are also sizeable minorities of Shias, Ahmadis, Ibadi and Sufis.[30]

Judaism

Main article: Judaism in Africa

Adherents of Judaism can be found scattered in a number of countries across Africa; including North Africa, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Cameroon, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Southern Africa.

Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in Africa
Ganga Talao in Mauritius

Hinduism has existed in Africa mainly since the late 19th century.It is the largest religion in Mauritius,[31] and several other countries have Hindu temples.

Buddhism and Chinese religions

Nan Hua Temple in Bronkhorstspruit, South Africa.
Main article: Buddhism in Africa

Buddhism is a tiny religion in Africa with around 250,000 practicing adherents,[32] and up to nearly 400,000 [33] if combined with Taoism and Chinese Folk Religion as a common traditional religion of mostly new Chinese migrants (significant minority in Mauritius, Réunion, and South Africa). About half of African Buddhists are now living in South Africa, while Mauritius has the highest Buddhist percentage in the continent, between 1.5%[34] to 2%[35] of the total population.

Other religions

Other faiths are practiced in Africa, including Zoroastrianism and Rastafarianism among others.[36]

Irreligion

Main article: Irreligion in Africa

A Gallup poll shows that the irreligious comprise 20% in South Africa, 16% in Botswana, 13% in Mozambique, 13% in Togo, 12% in Libya and Côte d'Ivoire, 10% in Ethiopia and Angola, 9% in Sudan, Zimbabwe and Algeria, 8% in Namibia and 7% in Madagascar.[37]

Syncretism

Syncretism is the combining of different (often contradictory) beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. In the commonwealth of Africa syncretism with indigenous beliefs is practiced throughout the region. It is believed by some to explain religious tolerance between different groups.[38] Kwesi Yankah and John Mbiti argue that many African peoples today have a 'mixed' religious heritage to try to reconcile traditional religions with Abrahamic faiths.[39][40] Jesse Mugambi claims that the Christianity taught to Africans by missionaries had a fear of syncretism, which was carried on by current African Christian leadership in an attempt to keep Christianity "pure."[41] Syncretism in Africa is said by others to be overstated,[42] and due to a misunderstanding of the abilities of local populations to form their own orthodoxies and also confusion over what is culture and what is religion. Others state that the term syncretism is a vague one,[43] since it can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of Christianity or Islam with beliefs or practices from somewhere else. The consequences under this definition, according to missiologist Keith Ferdinando, are a fatal compromise of the religion's integrity. However, communities in Africa (e.g. Afro-Asiatic) have many common practices which are also found in Abrahamic faiths, and thus these traditions do not fall under the category of some definitions of syncretism.[44]

Religious distribution

Religion in Africa by country and region, as percentage of national populationn1
Coun­try Re­gion Chris­ti­an­i­ty Islam Tra­di­tion­al re­li­gions
 Angola[45] Central Africa 95 0.5 4.5
 Cameroon[46] Central Africa 69.2 20.9 9.9
 Central African Republic[47] Central Africa 80.3 10.1 9.6
 Chad[48] Central Africa 34 53 13
 Democratic Republic of the Congo[49] Central Africa 95.8 1.5 2.7
 Republic of the Congo[49] Central Africa 85.9 1.2 12.9
 Equatorial Guinea[50] Central Africa 93 1 6
 Gabon[51] Central Africa 73 10 17
 São Tomé and Príncipe[52] Central Africa 97 2 1
 Burundi[53] East Africa 75 5 20
 Comoros[54] East Africa 2 98 0
 Kenya[55] East Africa 78 10 12
 Madagascar[56] East Africa 41 7 52
 Malawi[57] East Africa 79.9 12.8 7.3
 Mauritius[58] East Africa 32.2 16.6 51.2
 Mayotte[59] East Africa 3 97 0
 Mozambique[60] East Africa 56.1 17.9 26
 Réunion[61] East Africa 84.9 2.1 13
 Rwanda[62] East Africa 93.6 4.6 1.8
 Seychelles[63] East Africa 93.1 1.1 5.8
 South Sudan[49] East Africa 60.5 6.2 32.9
 Tanzania[64] East Africa 30 35 35
 Uganda[65] East Africa 84 12 4
 Zambia[66] East Africa 87 1 12
 Djibouti[67] Horn of Africa 6 94 0
 Eritrea[68] Horn of Africa 62.5 36.5 1
 Ethiopia[69] Horn of Africa 62.8 33.9 3.3
 Somalia[70] Horn of Africa 0 100 0
 Algeria[71] North Africa 1 99 0
 Egypt[72] North Africa 10 90 0
 Libya[73] North Africa 2.7 96.6 1
 Morocco[74] North Africa 0 100 0
 Sudan[75] North Africa 3 97 0
 Tunisia[76] North Africa 1 98 1
 Botswana[77] Southern Africa 71.6 0.3 28.1
 Lesotho[78] Southern Africa 90 0 10
 Namibia[79] Southern Africa 90 0 10
 South Africa[80] Southern Africa 79.7 1.5 18.9
 Swaziland[81] Southern Africa 90 1 9
 Zimbabwe[82] Southern Africa 84 1 15
 Benin[83] West Africa 42.8 24.4 32.8
 Burkina Faso[84] West Africa 23 61 16
 Cape Verde[85] West Africa 85 1.8 0.2
 Côte d'Ivoire[86] West Africa 32.6 38.6 25.0
 Gambia[87] West Africa 9 90 1
 Ghana[88] West Africa 71.2 17.6 11.2
 Guinea[89] West Africa 10 85 5
 Guinea-Bissau[90] West Africa 22 45 15
 Liberia[91] West Africa 85.5 12.2 2.2
 Mali[92] West Africa 5 90 5
 Mauritania[93] West Africa 0 100 0
 Niger[94] West Africa 10 80 <10
 Nigeria[95] West Africa 58 41 <1
 Senegal[96] West Africa 5 94 1
 Sierra Leone[97] West Africa 10 60 30
 Togo[98] West Africa 29 20 51
  1. ^ The most recent census data are used.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Restless Spirits: Syncretic Religion Yolanda Pierce, Ph.D. Associate Professor of African American Religion & Literature
  2. ↑ "AFRICAN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS - Tewahedo - Palo - Serer - Tijaniyyah - Vodon". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 Dr J.O. Awolalu, Studies in Comparative Religion Vol. 10, No. 2. (Spring, 1976).
  4. ↑ Cheikh Anta Diop The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality, Chicago, L.Hill, 1974. ISBN 1-55652-072-7
  5. ↑ Leo Frobenius on African History, Art, and Culture: An Anthology, 2007 ISBN 1-55876-425-9
  6. ↑ Bolaji Idowu African Traditional Religion: A Definition, Maryknoll, N.Y., Orbis Books (1973) ISBN 0-88344-005-9
  7. ↑ J S MbitiAfrican Religions and Philosophy, African Writers Series, Heinemann [1969] (1990). ISBN 0-435-89591-5
  8. 1 2 Mbiti, John S (1992). Introduction to African religion. ISBN 9780435940027.When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional religion with the one to which they are converted. In this way they are not losing something valuable, but are gaining something from both religious customs
  9. ↑ Riggs, Thomas (2006). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations. p. 1. ISBN 9780787666125.Although a large proportion of Africans have converted to Islam an Christianity, these two world religions have been assimilated into African culture, and many African Christians and Muslims maintain traditional spiritual beliefs
  10. ↑ Gottlieb, Roger S (2006-11-09). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. ISBN 9780195178722.Even in the adopted religions of Islam and Christianity, which on the surface appear to have converted millions of Africans from their traditional religions, many aspect of traditional religions are still manifest
  11. ↑ "US study sheds light on Africa's unique religious mix". AFP.t doesn't seem to be an either-or for many people. They can describe themselves primarily as Muslim or Christian and continue to practice many of the traditions that are characteristic of African traditional religion," Luis Lugo, executive director of the Pew Forum, told AFP.
  12. ↑ Quainoo, Samuel Ebow (2000-01-01). In Transitions and consolidation of democracy in Africa. ISBN 9781586840402.Even though the two religions are monotheistic, most African Christians and Muslims convert to them and still retain some aspects of their traditional religions
  13. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 9780852299562 p.306
    According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
  14. ↑ Lee, Anthony A. (November 1997). "The Baha'i Church of Calabar, West Africa: The Problem of Levels in Religious History". Occasional Papers in Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies. 01 (6).
  15. ↑ "Overview Of World Religions". General Essay on the Religions of Sub-Saharan Africa. Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
  16. ↑ "Most Baha'i Nations (2005)". QuickLists > Compare Nations > Religions >. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
  17. ↑ El-Hennawy, Noha (September 2006). "The Fourth Faith?". Egypt Today. Archived from the original on September 4, 2009.
  18. ↑ Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights (2006-12-16). "Government Must Find Solution for Baha'i Egyptians". eipr.org. Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
  19. ↑ Gonn, Adam (2009-02-24). "Victory In Court For Egyptian Baha'i". Cairo, Egypt: AHN. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
  20. ↑ Reuters (2009-04-03). "Baha'i Homes Attacked in Egypt Village". '. Egypt: Javno.com. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
  21. ↑ "Regional Conferences of the Five Year Plan; November 2008–March 2009". Bahá’í International Community. 2009. Retrieved 2012-03-21.
  22. ↑ http://www.kebranegast.com Kebra Negast
  23. ↑ Pragmatic Spirituality. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  24. ↑ Hansberry, William Leo. Pillars in Ethiopian History; the William Leo Hansberry African History Notebook. Washington: Howard University Press, 1934.
  25. ↑ Historian Ahead of His Time, Christianity Today Magazine, February 2007
  26. ↑ World Council of Churches Report, August 2004
  27. ↑ Tracing The Way. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  28. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306
    According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 480,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham, (A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture (see Amadu Jacky Kaba). The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
  29. ↑ "Sunni Schools". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  30. ↑ Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2013
  31. ↑ "Mauritius". CIA World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  32. ↑ "Most Buddhist Nations (2010) - QuickLists - The Association of Religion Data Archives". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  33. ↑ "Most Chinese Universist Nations (2010) - QuickLists - The Association of Religion Data Archives". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  34. ↑ "Religious Adherents, 2010 – Mauritius (0.2% Buddhist + 1.3% Chinese Folk Religion)". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
  35. ↑ "Buddhism in Mauritius (1981)". Adherents.com. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  36. ↑ Harrison, Philip (2004). South Africa's top sites. (1st ed.). Klenilworth: Spearhead. ISBN 9780864865649.
  37. ↑ GALLUP WorldView - data accessed on 14 September 2011
  38. ↑ Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E. (1986). Human rights in Commonwealth Africa. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series; Human Rights in Commonwealth Africa. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-8476-7433-6.
  39. ↑ Peek, Philip M; Yankah, Kwesi, eds. (2004). "African Folklore: An Encyclopedia". African folklore: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. various. ISBN 978-0-415-93933-1. Retrieved 2012-03-21.
  40. ↑ Mbiti, John S. (1992). Introduction to African religion (2nd ed.). East African Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-9966-46-928-1.
  41. ↑ Critiques of Christianity in African Literature. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  42. ↑ Mugambi, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua (1992). Critiques of Christianity in African literature: with particular reference to the East African context. East African Publishers. p. 60. ISBN 978-9966-46-580-1.
  43. ↑ http://www.missiology.org.uk/pdf/cotterell-fs/15_ferdinando.pdf
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  46. ↑ "Cameroon". State.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
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  51. ↑ "Gabon". State.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
  52. ↑ "Sao Tome and Principe". State.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
  53. ↑ "Burundi". State.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
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  57. ↑ "Malawi". State.gov. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
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  64. ↑ "The World Fact Book: Tanzania". Retrieved 26 January 2014.
  65. ↑ http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/pdf%20documents/2002%20Census%20Final%20Reportdoc.pdf
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  67. ↑ The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  68. ↑ http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR137/FR137.pdf
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  75. ↑ The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  76. ↑ The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
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  78. ↑ Lesotho. State.gov (2007-09-14). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  79. ↑ Namibia. State.gov (2010-11-17). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
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  81. ↑ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refworld - 2008 Report on International Religious Freedom - Swaziland". Refworld. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  82. ↑ "Zimbabwe". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  83. ↑ "Benin". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  84. ↑ "Burkina Faso". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  85. ↑ "Cape Verde". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  86. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  87. ↑ "Gambia, The". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  88. ↑ 2010 Population and Housing Census
  89. ↑ "Guinea". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  90. ↑ "Guinea-Bissau". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  91. ↑ "International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Liberia". United States Department of State. November 17, 2010. Retrieved July 22, 2011.
  92. ↑ "Mali". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  93. ↑ "Mauritania". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  94. ↑ "Niger". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
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  96. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  97. ↑ "Sierra Leone". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  98. ↑ Togo\. CIA – The World Factbook. Cia.gov.

Further reading

External links

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