Toga

For other uses, see Toga (disambiguation).
Statue of the Emperor Tiberius showing the draped toga of the 1st century AD.

The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favoured dress of Romulus, Rome's founder; it was also thought to have been worn by both sexes. As Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognised as formal wear for Roman men, and marked their status as male citizens.[1] Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule.[2] The type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties.

From its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. It was and is still considered Ancient Rome's "national costume", but it was hard to put on, uncomfortable and challenging to wear correctly, and never truly popular. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable, casual garments. It gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was worn only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions, and by the 5th century AD, it had been replaced as official costume by the more practical pallium.

Varieties

A toga praetexta

The toga was an approximately semi-circular woolen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the shoulders and around the body: the word "toga" probably derives from tegere, to cover. It was considered formal wear, and was generally reserved for citizens. The Romans considered it unique to themselves; thus their poetic description by Virgil and Martial as the gens togata (toga-wearing race)[3] There were many kinds of toga, each reserved by custom to particular usage or social class.

  • Curule magistrates in their official functions, and traditionally, the Kings of Rome.[6]
  • Freeborn boys, and some freeborn girls, before they came of age. It marked their protection by law from sexual predation and immoral or immodest influence. A praetexta was thought effective against malignant magic, as were a boy's bulla, and a girl's lunula.[7][8]

The toga as "national dress"

The earliest form of toga might have resembled the ancient Greek himation and Etruscan tebenna, which were simple, rectangular lengths of cloth that served as both body-wrap and blanket for peasants, shepherds and itinerant herdsmen.[20] Roman historians believed that Rome's legendary founder and first king, the erstwhile shepherd Romulus, had worn a toga as his clothing of choice; the purple-bordered toga praetexta was supposedly used by Etruscan magistrates, and introduced to Rome by her third king, Tullus Hostilius.[21]

Togas in civil life

Funeray stele for a boy named Philetos, son of Philetos, from the deme of Aixone (near Athens in Roman Greece), 1st half of the 1st century AD

Roman society was strongly hierarchic, stratified and competitive. Landowning patrician aristocrats occupied most seats in the senate and held the most senior magistracies. Magistrates were elected by their peers and "the people"; in Roman constitutional theory, they ruled by consent. In practise, they were a mutually competitive patriarchy, reserving the greatest power, wealth and prestige to their class. The commoners who made up the vast majority of the Roman electorate had limited influence on politics, unless barraking or voting en masse, or through representation by their tribunes. The Equites (sometimes loosely translated as "knights") occupied a broadly mobile, mid-position between the lower senatorial and upper commoner class. Despite often extreme disparities of wealth and rank among citizens, the toga identified them as a singular and exclusive civic body. Conversely, and just as usefully, it underlined their differences.

Togas were relatively uniform in pattern and style but varied significantly in the quality and quantity of their fabric, and the marks of higher rank or office. The highest status toga, the solidly purple, gold-embroidered toga picta could be worn only at particular ceremonies by the highest ranking magistrates. Tyrian purple was supposedly reserved for the toga picta, the border of the toga praetexta, and elements of the priestly dress worn by the inviolate Vestal Virgins. It was colour-fast, extremely expensive and the "most talked-about colour in Greco-Roman antiquity".[22] Romans categorised it as a blood-red hue, which sanctified its wearer. The purple-bordered praetexta worn by freeborn youths acknowledged their vulnerability and sanctity under law. Once a boy came of age (usually at puberty) he adopted the plain white toga virilis; this meant that he was free to set up his own household, marry, and vote.[23][24][25][26] Young girls who wore the praetexta on formal occasions put it aside at menarche or marriage, and adopted the stola[27] Even the whiteness of the toga virilis was subject to class distinction. Senatorial versions were expensively laundered to an exceptional, snowy white; those of lower ranking citizens were a duller shade, more cheaply laundered.[28]

Citizenship carried specific privileges, rights and responsibilities.[29] In Roman territories, the toga was explicitly forbidden to non-citizens; to foreigners, freedmen, and slaves; to Roman exiles;[30] and to men of "infamous" career or shameful reputation; an individual's status should be discernable at a glance.[31] A freedman or foreigner might pose as a togate citizen, or a common citizen as an equestrian; such pretenders were sometimes ferreted out in the census. Formal seating arrangements in public theatres and circuses reflected the dominance of Rome's togate elect. Senators sat at the very front, equites behind them, common citizens behind equites; and so on, through the non-togate mass of freedmen, foreigners, and slaves.[32] Imposters were sometimes detected and evicted from the equestrian seats.[33]

Various anecdotes in Livy's history of Rome reflect the toga's symbolic value. In one, the patrician hero Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, retired from public life and clad (presumably) in tunic or loincloth, is ploughing his field when emissaries of the Senate arrive, and ask him to put on his toga. His wife fetches it and he puts it on. Then he is told that he has been appointed dictator. He promptly heads for Rome.[34] Donning the toga transforms Cincinnatus from rustic, sweaty ploughman – though a gentleman nevertheless, of impeccable stock and reputation – into Rome's leading politician, eager to serve his country; a top-quality Roman.[35] Rome's abundant public and private statuary reinforced the notion that all Rome's great men wore togas, and must always have done so.[36][37]

Work and leisure

Traditionalists idealised Rome's urban and rustic citizenry as descendants of a hardy, virtuous, toga-clad peasantry, but the toga's bulk and complex drapery made it entirely impractical for manual work or physically active leisure. The toga was heavy, "unwieldy, excessively hot, easily stained, and hard to launder";[38] It was best suited to stately processions, public debate and oratory, sitting in the theatre or circus, and displaying oneself before one's peers and inferiors while "ostentatiously doing nothing".[39] Every male Roman citizen was entitled to wear some kind of toga – Martial refers to a lesser citizen's "small toga" and a poor man's "little toga" (both togatulus) -[40] but the poorest probably had to make do with a shameful, patched-up hand-me-down, if he bothered at all.[41] By the later 1st century AD, Tacitus could disparage the urban plebs as a vulgus tunicatus ("tunic crowd")[42]

A fresco from a building near Pompeii, a rare depiction of Roman men in togae praetextae with dark red borders. It dates from the early Imperial Era and probably shows an event during Compitalia, a popular street-festival

In the early second century AD, the satirist Juvenal claimed that "in a great part of Italy, no-one wears the toga, except in death"; in Martial's rural idyll there is "never a lawsuit, the toga is scarce, the mind at ease".[43][44] Rank, reputation and Romanitas were paramount, even in death, so almost invariably, a male citizen's memorial image showed him clad in his toga. He wore it at at his funeral, and it probably served as his shroud.[45] In life, most citizens would have cherished their toga as a material object, and worn it when they must, but not when in their own surroundings and among their peers. Family, friendships and alliances, and the gainful pursuit of wealth through business and trade would have been their major preoccupations.[46][42]

At most times, Rome's thoroughfares would have been with crowded with citizens and non-citizens jostling about their business, in a great variety of colourful garments, with few togas in evidence. Only a higher-caste Roman, a magistrate, would have had lictors to clear his way, and even then, wearing a toga was hard work. Its apparent natural simplicity and "elegant, flowing lines" were the result of diligent practice and cultivation; its wearer must walk with measured, stately gait,[38] or risk an embarrassing disarrangement. In this respect, Wilson (1924), after experiment with various fabrics, found the rough texture of the woolen toga a practical necessity; smoother fabrics refused to stay in their proper place.[47] Vout (1966) suggests that the toga's most challenging qualities as garment fitted the Romans' view of themselves and their civilization. Like the empire itself, the peace that the toga came to represent had been earned through the extraordinary and unremitting collective efforts of its citizens, who could therefore claim "the time and dignity to dress in such a way".[48]

Patronage and salutationes

The so-called "Togatus Barberini" depicting a Roman senator with portrait busts of ancestors, one of which is supported by a herm: marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): middle 1st century BC[49]

Patronage was a cornerstone of Roman politics, business and social relationships. A good patron offered advancement, security, honour, wealth, government contracts and other business opportunities to his client, who might be further down in the social or economic scale, or more rarely, his equal or superior.[50] A good client canvassed political support for his patron, or his patron's nominee; he advanced his patron's interests using his own business, family and personal connections. Freedmen with an aptitude for business could become extremely wealthy; but to negotiate citizenship for themselves, or more likely their sons, they must find a patron prepared to commend them. Clients seeking patronage had to attend the patron's early-morning formal salutatio ("greeting session"), held in the semi-public, grand reception room (atrium) of his family house (domus).[51] Citizen-clients were expected to wear the toga appropriate to their status, and to wear it correctly and smartly or risk affront to their host.[52]

Martial and his friend Juvenal suffered the system as clients for years, and found the whole business demeaning. A client must be at his patron's beck and call, to perform whatever "togate works" were required; and the patron might even expect to be addressed as "domine" (lord, or master); a citizen-client of the equestrian class, superior to all lesser mortals by virtue of rank and costume, might thus approach the shameful condition of dependent servitude. For a client whose patron was another's client, the potential for shame was still worse. Even as a satirical analogy, the equation of togate client and slave would have shocked those who cherished the toga as a symbol of personal dignity and auctoritas – a meaning underlined during the Saturnalia festival, when the toga was "very consciously put aside", in a ritualised, strictly limited inversion of the master-slave relationship.[53]

Patrons were few, and most had to compete with their peers to attract the best, most useful clients. Clients were many, and those of least interest to the patron had to scrabble for notice among the "togate horde" (turbae togatae). One in a dirty or patched toga would likely be subject to ridicule; or he might, if sufficiently dogged and persistent, secure a pittance of cash, or perhaps a dinner. When the patron left his house to conduct his business of the day at the law courts, forum or wherever else, escorted (if a magistrate) by his togate lictors, his clients must form his retinue. Each togate client represented a potential vote:[54] to impress his peers and inferiors, and stay ahead in the game, a patron should have as many high-quality clients as possible; or at least, he should seem to. Martial has one patron hire a herd (grex) of fake clients in togas, then pawn his ring to pay for his evening meal.[55][56][57]

The emperor Marcus Aurelius, rather than wear the "dress to which his rank entitled him" at his own salutationes, chose to wear a plain white citizen's toga instead; an act of modesty for any patron, unlike Caligula, who wore a triumphal toga picta or any other garment he chose, according to whim; or Nero, who caused considerable offence when he received visiting senators while dressed in a tunic embroidered with flowers, topped off with a muslin neckerchief.[58]

Oratory

The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in rhetoric. He wears senatorial shoes, and a toga praetexta of "skimpy" (exigua) Republican type.[59] The statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet

In oratory, the toga came into its own. Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria (circa 95 AD) offers advice on how best to plead cases at Rome's law-courts, before the watching multitude's informed and critical eye. Effective pleading was a calculated artistic performance, but must seem utterly natural. First impressions counted; the lawyer must present himself as a Roman should: "virile and splendid" in his toga, with statuesque posture and "natural good looks". He should be well groomed – but not too well; no primping of the hair, jewellery or any other "feminine" perversions of a Roman man's proper appearance. Quintillian gives precise instructions on the correct use of the toga – its cut, style, and the arrangements of its folds. Its fabric can be old-style rough wool, or new and smoother if preferred – but definitely not silk. The orator's movements should be dignified, and to the point; he should move only as he must, to address a particular person, a particular section of the audience. He should employ to good effect that subtle "language of the hands" for which Roman oratory was famed; no extravagant gestures, no wiggling of the shoulders, no moving "like a dancer".[60][61]

To a great extent, the toga itself determined the orator's style of delivery; "we should not cover the shoulder and the whole of the throat, otherwise our dress will be unduly narrowed and will lose the impressive effect produced by breadth at the chest. The left arm should only be raised so far as to form a right angle at the elbow, while the edge of the toga should fall in equal lengths on either side"... if, on the other hand, the "toga falls down at the beginning of our speech, or when we have only proceeded but a little way, the failure to replace it is a sign of indifference, or sloth, or sheer ignorance of the way in which clothes should be worn". By the time he has presented his case, the orator is likely to be hot and sweaty; but even this can be employed to good effect.[62]

Togas in public morals

Roman moralists "placed an ideological premium on the simple and the frugal".[63] Aulus Gellius claimed that the earliest Romans, famously tough, virile and dignified, had worn togas with no undergarment; not even a skimpy tunic.[64] Towards the end of the Republic, the arch-conservative Cato the Younger favoured the shorter, ancient Republican type of toga; it was dark and "scanty" (a toga exigua), and Cato wore it without tunic or shoes; all this would have been recognised as an expression of his moral probity.[65] Die-hard Roman traditionalists deplored an ever-increasing Roman appetite for ostentation, "un-Roman" comfort and luxuries, and sartorial offences such as Celtic trousers, brightly coloured Syrian robes and cloaks. The manly toga itself could signify corruption, if worn too loosely, or worn over a long-sleeved, "effeminate" tunic, or woven too fine and thin, near transparent.[66] Appian's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume."[67] The Augustan Principate brought peace, and declared its intent as the restoration of true Republican order, morality and tradition.

Augustus was determined to bring back "the style of yesteryear" (the toga). He ordered that any theatre-goer in dark (or coloured or dirty) clothing be sent to the back seats, traditionally reserved for who those had no toga; ordinary or common women, freedmen, low-class foreigners and slaves. He reserved the most honourable seats, front of house, for senators and equites; this was how it had always been, before the chaos of the civil wars; or rather, how it was supposed to have been. Infuriated by the sight of a darkly clad throng of men at a public meeting, he sarcastically quoted Virgil at them, "Romanos, rerum dominos, gentemque togatam " ("Romans, lords of the world and the toga-wearing people"), then ordered that in future, the aediles ban anyone not wearing the toga from the Forum and its environs – Rome's "civic heart".[68] Augustus' reign saw the introduction of the toga rasa, an ordinary toga whose rough fibres were teased from the woven nap, then shaved back to a smoother, more comfortable finish. By Pliny's day (circa 70 AD) this was probably standard among the elite.[69] Pliny also describes a glossy smooth, lightweight but dense fabric woven from poppy-stem fibres and flax, in use from at least the time of the Punic Wars. Though probably appropriate for a "summer toga", it was criticised for its improper luxuriance.[70]

Women and the toga

Some Romans believed that in earlier times, both genders and all classes had worn the toga. Women could also be citizens but by the mid-to-late Republican era, respectable women were stolata (stola-wearing), expected to embody and display an appropriate set of female virtues: Vout cites pudicitia and fides as examples. Women's adoption of the Greek-style stola may have paralleled the increasing identification of the toga with citizen men, but this seems to have been a far from straightforward process. An equestrian statue, described by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga.[71] The unmarried daughters of respectable, reasonably well-off citizens sometimes wore the toga praetexta until puberty or marriage, when they adopted the stola, which they wore over a full-length, usually long-sleeved tunic.

Higher-class female prostitutes (meretrices) and women divorced for adultery were denied the stola. Meretrices might have been expected or perhaps compelled, at least in public, to wear the "toga of motherhood" (toga muliebris).[72] This use of the toga appears unique; all others categorised as "infamous and disreputable" were explicitly forbidden to wear it. In this context, modern sources understand the toga - or perhaps merely the description of particular women as togata - as an instrument of inversion and realignment; a respectable (thus stola-clad) woman should be demure, sexually passive, modest and obedient, morally impeccable. The archetypical meretrix of Roman literature dresses gaudily and provocatively. She is predatory, seductive and voluptuary; an unhealthy and degraded object of fascination, simultaneously desired and despised. Edwards (1996) describes her as "antithetical to the Roman male citizen".[2] An adulterous matron betrayed her family and reputation; and if found guilty, and divorced, the law forbade her remarriage to a Roman citizen. In the public gaze, she was aligned with the meretrix.[73][74][75] When worn by a woman in this later era, the toga would have been a "blatant display" of her "exclusion from the respectable Roman hierarchy".[2]

The toga and the Roman military

Detail, showing a portrait of the deceased couple, from the upper front side of the cast of so-called Sarcophagus of Stilicho, sculpted around 385 AD, Museum of Roman Civilization, Rome (the original sarcophagus is in Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, Italy).

Rome's military was the instrument of her defence, her belligerent expansion, and the eventual Pax Romana imposed on her subjects. Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the lower ranks of Rome's military forces were "farmer-soldiers", a militia of citizen smallholders conscripted for the duration of hostilities.[76] They were expected to provide their own arms and armour. Citizens of higher status were expected to serve in more senior positions as a foundation for their progress to high civil office (see cursus honorum). The toga, being impractical in battle, seems to have been reserved for formal leisure and religious festivals; the tunic and sagum (heavy cloak) were used or preferred for active duty. As part of a peace settlement of 205 BC, two formerly rebellious Spanish tribes provided Roman troops with togas and heavy cloaks; in 206 BC, Scipio Africanus was sent 1,200 togas and 12,000 tunics for his operations in North Africa. In the Macedonian campaign of 169 BC, the army was sent 6,000 togas and 30,000 tunics.[77]

Late republican practice and legal reform allowed the creation of standing armies, and opened a military career to any Roman citizen or freedman of good reputation.[78] A soldier who showed the requisite "disciplined ferocity" in battle and was held in esteem by his peers and superiors could be promoted to higher rank: a plebeian could rise to equestrian status.[79] Non-citizens and foreign-born auxiliaries given honourable discharge were usually granted citizenship, land or stipend, the right to wear the toga, and an obligation to the patron who had granted these honours; usually their senior officer. A dishonourable discharge meant infamia.[80] Colonies of retired veterans were scattered throughout the Empire. In literary stereotype, civilians are routinely bullied by burly soldiers, inclined to throw their weight around.[81]

Though soldiers were citizens, Cicero typifies the former as "sagum wearing" and the latter as "togati". He employs the phrase cedant arma togae ("let arms yield to the toga"), meaning "may peace replace war", or "may military power yield to civilian power", in the context of his own uneasy alliance with Pompey. He intended it as metonym, linking his own "power to command" as consul (imperator togatus) with Pompey's as general (imperator armatus); but it was interpreted as a request to step down. Cicero, having lost Pompey's ever-wavering support, was driven to exile.[82] In reality, arms rarely yielded to civilian power. During the early Roman Imperial era, members of the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's personal guard as "First Citizen", and a military force under his personal command), concealed their weapons under white, civilian-style togas when on duty in the city, offering the reassuring illusion that they represented a traditional Republican, civilian authority, rather than the military arm of an Imperial autocracy.[83][78]

Togas in religion

Augustus capite velato ("with covered head"), as Pontifex Maximus, c. 12 BC
(Via Labicana Augustus)

Citizens attending Rome's frequent religious festivals and associated games were expected to wear the toga.[77] The toga praetexta was the normal garb for most Roman priesthoods, which tended to be the preserve of high status citizens. When offering sacrifice, libation and prayer, and when performing augury, the officiant priest covered his head with a fold of his toga, drawn up from the back: the ritual was thus performed capite velato (with covered head). This was believed a distinctively Roman form,[84] in contrast to Etruscan, Greek and other foreign practices. The Etruscans seem to have sacrificed bareheaded (capite aperto).[85] In Rome, the so-called ritus graecus (Greek rite) was used for deities believed Greek in origin or character; the officiant, even if citizen, wore Greek-style robes with wreathed or bare head, not the toga.[86] It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced Paul's prohibition against Christians praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head."[87]

An officiant capite velato who needed free use of both hands to perform ritual could employ a method of belting, known as the "Gabinian cincture" (cinctus Gabinus), which tied the toga back.[88] It was thought to derive from the priestly practice of ancient, warlike Gabii.[89] Etruscan priests also employed the Gabine cinch. In Rome, it was one of the elements in making a declaration of war.[90]

Materials

The traditional toga was made of wool, which was thought to possess powers to avert misfortune and the evil eye; the toga praetexta (used by magistrates, priests and freeborn youths) was always woolen.[91] Wool-working was thought a highly respectable occupation for Roman women. A traditional, high-status mater familias demonstrated her industry and frugality by placing wool-baskets, spindles and looms in the household's semi-public reception area, the atrium.[92] Augustus was particularly proud that his wife and daughter had set the best possible example to other Roman women by spinning and weaving his clothing.[93]

Handwoven cloth was slow and costly to produce; and compared to simpler forms of clothing, the toga used an extravagant amount of it. To minimise waste, the smaller, old-style forms of toga may have been woven as a single, seamless, selvedged piece; the later, larger versions may have been made from several pieces sewn together; size seems to have counted for a lot.[94] More cloth signified greater wealth and usually, though not invariably, higher rank. The purple-red border of the toga praetexta was woven onto the toga using a process known as "tablet weaving"; such applied borders are a feature of Etruscan dress.[95]

Ross (1911) employed a cloth of roughly semicircular shape with a rectangular extension to simulate the longer, more complex togas of the later Imperial era.[96] Wilson (1924) achieved similar effects using a slightly irregular polygon with six softly curved sides, folded lengthwise into a double layer of 4 to 5 feet in width. Modern sources broadly agree that if made from a single piece of fabric, the toga of a high status Roman in the late Republic would have required a piece approximately 12 ft in length; in the Imperial era, around 18 ft, a third more than its predecessor, and in the late Imperial era around 8 feet wide and up to 18 or 20 feet in length for the most complex, pleated forms.[97]

Features and styles

Portrait bust of the emperor Philip the Arab, circa 245 AD, wearing the "banded toga".

The toga was draped, rather than fastened over the body, and was held in position by the weight and friction of its fabric. No pins or brooches were employed. In classical statuary, draped togas consistently show certain features and folds, identified and named in contemporary literature.

The sinus (literally, a bay or inlet) appears in the Imperial era as a loose over-fold, slung from beneath the left arm, downwards across the chest, then upwards to the right shoulder. It functioned as a pouch or pocket. Early examples are slender, rather like the slim, tighter crosswise fold known as the balneus (sword belt) from which the sinus probably derives. Later form of sinus are much fuller; the loop hangs at knee-length, suspended there by draping over the crook of the right arm.[98]

The umbo (literally "knob"), was a decorative-cum-practical pouching of the toga's fabric, draped over the left shoulder and rightwards, just above the sinus. Its end was loosely tucked into the balneus, approximately halfway across the chest. Like the sinus, the umbo could be used for storage. Its added weight and friction would have helped (though not very effectively) secure toga's fabric onto the left shoulder. As the toga developed, the umbo grew in size.[99]

The most complex togas appear on high quality portrait busts and imperial reliefs of the mid-to-late Empire, probably reserved to emperors and the highest civil officials. The so-called "banded" or "stacked" toga" (Latinised as toga contabulata) is distinguished by its broad, smooth, slab-like panels of pleated material, more or less correspondent with umbo, sinus and balteus, or applied over the same. One rises from low between the legs, and is laid over the left shoulder; another more or less follows the upper edge of the sinus; yet another follows the lower edge of a more-or-less vestigial balteus then descends to the upper shin. As in other forms, the sinus itself is hung over the crook of the right arm.[100] If its full-length representations are accurate, it would have severely constrained its wearer's movements. Dressing in a toga contabulata would have taken some time, and specialist assistance. When not in use, it required careful storage in some form of press or hanger to keep it in shape. Such inconvenient features of the later toga are confirmed by Tertullian, who preferred the pallium.[101] High status (consular or senatorial) images from the late 4th century show a further ornate variation, known as the "Broad Eastern Toga";. it hung to the mid-calf, was heavily embroidered, and was worn over two pallium-style undergarments, one of which had full length sleeves. Its sinus was draped over the left arm.[102]

Decline

In the long term, the toga saw both a gradual transformation and decline, punctuated by attempts to retain it as an essential feature of true Romanitas. The extension of citizenship, from around 6 million citizens under Augustus to between 40 and 60 million under the "universal citizenship" of Caracalla's Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD), probably further reduced the toga's distinctive value for citizen-commoners, and accelerated its abandonment among their class. Hadrian's edict compelling its use in public had been aimed not at commoners, but at equites and senators, whose numbers had also soared.[103] Meanwhile, the office-holding aristocracy adopted ever more elaborate, complex, costly and impractical forms of toga.[104] In 397, the Western emperor Honorius tried, like emperors before him, to revive Rome's ancient dress codes by banning "foreign" trousers in Rome and imposing the toga. In Constantinople, it had already fallen out of use; in 382 the Theodosian Lex Vestiaria had officially replaced it with the more comfortable pallium and for senators, prescribed the paenula.[105] Byzantine art and portraiture show the highest functionaries of court, church and state in magnificently wrought, extravagantly exclusive court dress and priestly robes; the underlying construction of these pictured garments is difficult to fathom, but some at least are thought to be much-mutated versions of the Imperial toga.[106]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), p. 215. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association. (Vout cites Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses).
  2. 1 2 3 Catharine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in Roman Sexualities (Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 81-82
  3. ↑ Virgil, Aeneid, I.282; Martial, XIV.124.
  4. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 26
  5. ↑ Dolansky, F., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 55-60
  6. ↑ Edmonson, J. C., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors) Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 28 and note 32
  7. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 26. Not all modern scholarship agrees that girls wore the toga praetexta; see McGinn, T. A. J., Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998, p. 160, note 163
  8. ↑ Sebesta, J. L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa (Editors) The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 47
  9. ↑ Liv. xxvii. 8, 8; xxxiii. 42. As cited by The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
  10. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 26-27 (including footnote 24); citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, xix. 24, 6: Polybius, Historiae, x. 4, 8
  11. ↑ post red. in Sen. 5, 12. As cited by The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
  12. ↑ Flower, Harriet F., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 102
  13. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 26, 29
  14. ↑ Koortbojian, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 80-83
  15. ↑ Dewar, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 225-227
  16. ↑ Edmondson, J. C., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 26-27 Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 27.
  17. ↑ Dewar, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 219-234
  18. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 29; this lost work survives in fragmentary form through summary and citation by later Roman authors.
  19. ↑ Goldman, B., in Sebesta, J. L., and Bonfante, L., (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp. 229-230
  20. ↑ Goldman, B., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 217
  21. ↑ Sebesta, J. L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 47, note 5, citing Macrobius, 1.6.7-13;15-16
  22. ↑ Flower, Harriet F., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 118: "The best model for understanding Roman sumptuary legislation is that of aristocratic self-preservation within a highly competitive society which valued overt display of prestige above all else." Sumptuary laws were intended to limit competitive displays of personal wealth in the public sphere.
  23. ↑ On coming of age, he also gave his protective bulla into the care of the family Lares
  24. ↑ Bradley, Mark, Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 189, 194-195
  25. ↑ Dolansky, F., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 53-54
  26. ↑ Sebesta, J. L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p.47
  27. ↑ Olson. K., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 141-146. A minority of young girls seem to have used the praetexta, perhaps because their parents embraced the self-conscious revivalism typified in Augustan legislation and mores.
  28. ↑ Flower, Harriet I., 'Women in the Roman Republic', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 168-169, discussing the Lex Metilia fullonibus dicta of 220/217? BC, known only through its passing reference in Pliny's account of useful earths, including those employed in laundry. The best and most whitening compounds, which were also kind to coloured fabrics (such as those used in the praetextate stripe), probably cost more than ordinary Roman citizens could afford; so the togas of these status groups were laundered separately. The reasons for this law remain unclear: one scholar speculates that it was designed to protect "praetextate senators from the shame attached to the publicity of vastly unequal garb".
  29. ↑ Respectable women, the sons of freeborn men, and provincials during the early empire could hold lesser forms of citizenship; they were protected by law but could not vote, or stand for public office. Citizenship could be inherited, granted, up or down-graded, and removed for specific offences
  30. ↑ Exiles were deprived of citizenship and the protection of Roman law.
  31. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 25
  32. ↑ Women probably sat or stood at the very back – apart from the sacred Vestals, who had their own box at the front.
  33. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 31-33
  34. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), p. 218ff
  35. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), p. 214
  36. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 38
  37. ↑ Koortbojian, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 77-79: Pliny the elder(circa 70 AD) describes togate statuary as the older, traditional form of public honour, and cuirassed statuary of famous generals as a relatively later development. An individual might hold different offices in succession, or simultaneously, each represented by a different statuary type; cuirassed as a general, and togate as a holder of state office or priest of a state cult.
  38. 1 2 George, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 99
  39. ↑ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, (Editors) A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, p. 79, citing Thorstein Veblen.
  40. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 43, note 59, citing Martial, 10.74.3, 11.24.11 and 4.66
  41. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp. 204-220; throughout the empire, there is evidence that old clothing was recycled, repaired and handed down the social scale, from one owner to the next, until to it fell to rags. Centonarii ("patch workers") made a living by sewing clothing and other items from recycled fabric patches. The cost of a new, simple hooded cloak, using far less material than a toga, might represent three fifths of an individual's annual minimum subsistence cost: see Vout, pp. 211-212.
  42. 1 2 George, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 96
  43. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), p. 209
  44. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p.17, citing Juvenal, Satires, 3.171-172, Martial, 10.47.5
  45. ↑ J.M.C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971, 1996), pp. 43–44.
  46. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp. 205-208: contra Goldman's description of Roman clothing, including the toga, as "simple and elegant, practical and comfortable" in Goldman, N., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p.217
  47. ↑ Wilson, Lillian M., The Roman Toga, Johns Hopkins Press, 1924, p.127. Attempts to reconstruct the toga as "workable, wearable costume" for everyday life rely on examples provided by Roman statues, busts, reliefs and, to a lesser extent, murals and mosaics, to create facsimiles on a human model. Their sources range from the sketchy and crudely schematic to highly sophisticated works of Art, with exaggerated or imaginative elements intended to say something about the wearer. None show actual togas being worn in life; and none should be considered as "fashion plates".
  48. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp. 205-208
  49. ↑ The busts are presumed in some scholarship as marble representations of wax imagines: see Flower, H. I., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1999: particular discussion of the Togatus Barberini ancestor busts at pp. 5-7
  50. ↑ Cash-strapped or debtor citizens with a respectable lineage might have to seek patronage from rich freedmen, who ranked as inferiors and non-citizens.
  51. ↑ George, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 101
  52. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), p. 216
  53. ↑ George, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp 101, 103 – 106; slaves were considered as chattels, and owed their master absolute, unconditional submission.
  54. ↑ A citizen's voting power was directly proportionate to his rank, status and wealth
  55. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 24
  56. ↑ George, M., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 100 – 102
  57. ↑ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, (Editors) A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, p. 64: at salutationes and during any other "business times", equites were expected to wear a gold ring. Along with their toga, striped tunic and formal shoes (or calcei), this signified their status.
  58. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 24, 36-37, citing Dio Cassius, 71.35.4 and Suetonius Lives
  59. ↑ Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors) A Companion to the Etruscans (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33
  60. ↑ Bradley, K., Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 249, citing Quintilian
  61. ↑ Duggan, John, Making a New Man: Ciceronian Self-Fashioning in the Rhetorical Works, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 156, note 35, citing Wyke, 1994: "The Roman male citizen was defined through his body: the dignity and authority of a senator being constituted by his gait, his manner of wearing his toga, his oratorical delivery, his gestures."
  62. ↑ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 11.3.131-149, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1920.
  63. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 33
  64. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp. 214-215, citing Aulus Gellius, 6.123-4.
  65. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 16; some modern sources consider exigua as a republican type, others interpret it as poetic.
  66. ↑ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, (Editors) A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, p. 303, "transparent" toga, following Juvenal's Satire, 2, 65-78. Juvenal's invective associates transparency with prostitute's clothing. The aristocratic divorce-and-adultery lawyer Creticus wears a "transparent" toga, which far from decently covering him, shows him for "what he really is"; a cinaedus (a derogatory term for a passive homosexual).
  67. ↑ Rothfus, MA, "The Gens Togata: Changing Styles and Changing Identities", American Journal of Philology, 2010, p. 1, citing Appian, 2.17.120
  68. ↑ Edmondson, J., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 33; citing Suetonius, Augustus, 40.5, 44.2, and Cassius Dio 49. 16.1
  69. ↑ Sebesta, J. L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, editors, The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 68
  70. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 39, noted 9, citing Pliny the elder, Natural History, 8.74.195
  71. ↑ Olson, K., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 151, note 18, citing Pliny's account of an equestrian statue to the legendary, early Republican heroine.
  72. ↑ Braund, Susanna, and Osgood, Josiah, A Companion to Persius and Juvenal, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, p. 267 ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0
  73. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp.205-208, 215, citing Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses. Some modern scholars doubt the "togate adulteress" as more than literary and social invective: cf Dixon, J., in Harlow, M., and Nosch, M-L., (Editors) Greek and Roman Textiles and Dress: An Interdisciplinary Anthology, Oxbow Books, 2014, pp. 298-304
  74. ↑ Keith, A., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, pp. 197-198
  75. ↑ Saebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, editors, The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p.53
  76. ↑ Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 3
  77. 1 2 Olson, K., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 151, note 18
  78. 1 2 Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate, Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 77-78
  79. ↑ Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate, Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 12-17, 49-50
  80. ↑ Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 112
  81. ↑ Phang, Sar Elise, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 266
  82. ↑ Duggan, John, Making a New Man: Ciceronian Self-Fashioning in the Rhetorical Works, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 61-65, citing Cicero's Ad Pisonem (Against Piso).
  83. ↑ Rankov, Boris, The Praetorian Guard, Osprey, 1994, p. 31
  84. ↑ Palmer, Robert, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 83.
  85. ↑ Söderlind, M., Late Etruscan Votive Heads from Tessennano («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 370 online.
  86. ↑ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 78.
  87. ↑ 1 Corinthians 11:4; see Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Fortress Press, 1994, 2006), p. 210 online; Bruce W. Winter, After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 121–123 online, citing as the standard source D.W.J. Gill, "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16", Tyndale Bulletin 41 (1990) 245–260; Elaine Fantham, "Covering the Head at Rome" Ritual and Gender," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 159, citing Richard Oster.
  88. ↑ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 80.
  89. ↑ Scullard, H., A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (Routledge, 1935, reprinted 2013), p. 409.
  90. ↑ Servius, note to Aeneid 7.612; Larissa Bonfante, "Ritual Dress," p. 185, and Fay Glinister, "Veiled and Unveiled: Uncovering Roman Influence in Hellenistic Italy," p. 197, both in Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of Jean MacIntosh Turfa (Brill, 2009).
  91. ↑ Sebesta, J. L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 47
  92. ↑ In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: see Flower, Harriet I., 'Women in the Roman Republic', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 153, 195-197
  93. ↑ Flower, Harriet I., 'Women in the Roman Republic', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 153 – 154, citing Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 73
  94. ↑ Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, editors, The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 43, note 59, citing Martial, 10.74.3, 11.24.11 and 4.66
  95. ↑ Meyers, G., E., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors) A Companion to the Etruscans (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 331
  96. ↑ CF Ross, "The Reconstruction of the Later Toga", American Journal of Archaeology, 15, 1 (Jan – March, 1911), pp. 24-31: published by Archaeological Institute of America
  97. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp. 12 – 30.
  98. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp. 13 – 30
  99. ↑ pp. 282-286
  100. ↑ Modern reconstructions have employed applied panels of fabric, pins, and hidden stitches to achieve the effect; the underlying structure of the original remains unknown.
  101. ↑ Stone, S., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp. 24 – 25, 38
  102. ↑ Fejfer, J., Roman Portraits in Context (Image and Context), Walter de Gruyter, 2008, pp. 189-194.
  103. ↑ Edmondson, J. C., in Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 33
  104. ↑ Fejfer, J., 'Roman Portraits in Context (Image and Context), Walter de Gruyter, 2008, pp. 189-194.
  105. ↑ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct., 1996), pp. 212-213
  106. ↑ La Follette, L., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, editors, The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p.58 and footnote 90.

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