Mosul

This article is about the city. For the former province, see Mosul Province, Ottoman Empire. For other uses, see Mosul (disambiguation).
"Moslawi" redirects here. For the dialect, see North Mesopotamian Arabic.
Mosul
الموصل (Arabic)

Tigris River, a bridge and Grand Mosque in Mosul
Nickname(s): Nīnwē
Mosul
Coordinates: 36°20′N 43°08′E / 36.34°N 43.13°E / 36.34; 43.13Coordinates: 36°20′N 43°08′E / 36.34°N 43.13°E / 36.34; 43.13
Country  Iraq
Governorate Nineveh Governorate
Occupation Islamic State
Government
 • Mayor Hussein Ali Khajem
Elevation[1] 223 m (732 ft)
Population (2015)
 • City 664,221
 • Urban Unknown (estimates range between 750,000 and 1,500,000[2]
  UNData 1987[3]
Demonym(s) Moslawi
Time zone AST (UTC+3)
Area code(s) 60

Mosul (Arabic: الموصل‎‎ al-Mōṣul, local pronunciation: el-Mōṣul; Syriac: ܡܘܨܠ‎, translit. Māwṣil) is a city in northern Iraq. Since October 2016 it has been the site of a military operation led by the Iraqi Government, under Haider al-Abadi, in an effort to dislodge and defeat militant forces. The city has been under ISIL control since June 2014, and no westerner has entered the city until the latest initiative. The Battle of Mosul, a military offensive to re-take the city begun in October 2016, is the largest deployment of Iraqi forces since the 2003 invasion by U.S. and coalition forces.[4]

Located some 400 km (250 mi) north of Baghdad, the city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank. The metropolitan area has grown to encompass substantial areas on both the "Left Bank" (east side) and the "Right Bank" (west side), as the two banks are described by the locals compared to the flow direction of Tigris.

At the start of the 21st century, Mosul and its surrounds had an ethnically and religiously diverse population; the majority of Mosul's population were Arabs, with Assyrians,[5][6][7] Armenians, Turkmens, Kurds, Yazidis, Shabakis, Mandeans, Kawliya, Circassians in addition to other, smaller ethnic minorities. In religious terms, mainstream Sunni Islam was the largest religion, but with a significant number of followers of Salafism and Christianity (the latter followed by the Assyrians and Armenians), as well as Shia Islam, Sufism, Yezidism, Shabakism, Yarsan and Mandeanism.

The city's population grew rapidly around the turn of the millennium and by 2004 was estimated to be 1,846,500.[8] An estimated half million people fled Mosul in the second half of 2014 when the IS fought with government forces for control of the city. While some residents returned, more fled in 2015 as fighting and violence increased, and US bombings pounded the city. On November 17, 2016, ISIS attacked the city of Mosul, ultimately killing seven civilians, two soldiers, and wounding 35 others.[9]

Historically, important products of the area include Mosul marble and oil. The city of Mosul is home to the University of Mosul and its renowned Medical College, which together was one of the largest educational and research centers in Iraq and the Middle East. The University has since been closed. The Islamic State's leadership in Mosul has kept the Medical College open but it is reported to be barely functional.

Until 2014, the city, together with the nearby Nineveh plains, was one of the historic centers for the indigenous Assyrians[10][11] and their churches; the Assyrian Church of the East; its offshoot, the Chaldean Catholic Church; and the Syriac orthodox church, containing the tombs of several Old Testament prophets such as Jonah, which was destroyed by Islamic State occupation army in July 2014.[12]

1932: In the heart of ancient Mosul, showing a Yezidi shrine to the left and the Great Mosque of al-Nuri minaret to the right.

Etymology

The name of the city is first mentioned by Xenophon in his expeditionary logs in Achaemenid Assyria (Athura) of 401 BC, during the reign of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. There, he notes a small Assyrian town of "Mépsila" (Ancient Greek: Μέψιλα) on the Tigris somewhere about where modern Mosul is today (Anabasis, III.iv.10). It may be safer to identify Xenophon's Mépsila with the site of Iski Mosul, or "Old Mosul", about 30 km (19 mi) north of modern Mosul, where six centuries after Xenophon's report, the Sasanian Persian center of Budh-Ardhashīr was built. Be that as it may, the name Mepsila is doubtless the root for the modern name.

In its current Arabic form and spelling, the term Mosul, or rather "Mawsil", stands for the "linking point" – or loosely, the "Junction City," in Arabic. Mosul should not be confused with the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh, which is located across the Tigris from Mosul on the eastern bank, at the famed archaeological mound of Kuyunjik (Turkoman for "sheep's hill"). This area is known today as the town of Nebi Yunus ("prophet Jonah") and is now populated largely by Kurds. It is the only fully-Kurdish neighborhood in Mosul. The site contains the tomb of the Biblical Jonah, as he lived and died in the then capital of ancient Assyria. Today, this entire area has been absorbed into the Mosul metropolitan area. The indigenous Assyrians still refer to the entire city of Mosul as Nineveh (or rather, Ninweh).[13]

The ancient Nineveh was succeeded by Mepsila after the fall of the Assyrian Empire between 612-599 BC at the hands of a coalition of Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians and Sagartians. The Assyrians largely abandoned the city, building new smaller settlements such as Mepsila nearby.[14]

Mosul is also named al-Faiha ("the Paradise"), al-Khaḍrah ("the Green"), and al-Hadbah ("the Humped"). It is sometimes described as "The Pearl of the North"[15] and "the city of a million soldiers".[16]

History

Ancient era and early Middle Ages

St. Elijah's Monastery south of Mosul, Iraq's oldest Assyrian Christian monastery, dating from the 6th century

The area in which Mosul lies was an integral part of Assyria from as early as the 25th century BC, and after the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) which united all of the peoples of Mesopotamia under one rule, it again became a continuous part of Assyria proper from circa 2050 BC through to the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire between 612–599 BC. However, it remained within the geo-political province of Assyria for a further thirteen centuries (as a part of Achaemenid Assyria, Athura, Seleucid Syria, Assyria (Roman province) and Assuristan) until the Arab Islamic conquest mid 7th century AD, after which the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim Arab, Kurdish and Turkic peoples, although the Assyrians continue to use the name Athura as an Ecclesiastical Province.

Nineveh is mentioned in the Old Assyrian Empire (2025-1750), and during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I (1809-1776 BC) it is listed as a centre of worship of the goddess Ishtar, and it remained as such during the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365-1056 BC). During the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC) Nineveh grew in size and importance, particularly from the reigns of Tukulti-Ninurta II and Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) onward, however he chose the city of Kalhu (the Biblical Calah, modern Nimrud) as his capital in place of the ancient traditional capital of Assur (Ashur), 30 km (19 mi) from present day Mosul. Thereafter successive Assyrian emperor- monarchs such as Shalmaneser III, Adad-nirari III, Tiglath-pileser III, Shalmaneser V and Sargon II continued to expand the city. In approximately 700 BC, King Sennacherib made Nineveh the new capital of Assyria. Immense building work was undertaken, and Nineveh eclipsed Babylon, Kalhu and Assur in both size and importance, making it the largest city in the world. A number of scholars believe the true location of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were in fact at Nineveh.[17] The mound of Kuyunjik in Mosul is the site of the palaces of King Sennacherib, and his successors Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal, (who established the Library of Ashurbanipal) and Ashur-etil-ilani. The Assyrian Empire began to unravel from 626 BC onwards, being consumed by a decade of brutal internal civil wars, greatly weakening it. A war ravaged Assyria was subsequently attacked in 616 BC by a vast coalition of its former subjects; most notably the Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, Scythians, Cimmerians and Sagartians. Nineveh fell after a siege and bitter house to house fighting in 612 BC during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun who was killed defending his capital. His successor, Ashur-uballit II, fought his way out of Nineveh and formed a new Assyrian capital at Harran in modern south eastern Turkey.

Mosul (then Mepsila) later succeeded Nineveh as the Tigris bridgehead of the road that linked Assyria and Anatolia with the short lived Median Empire and succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC) where it was a part of the geo-political province of Athura (Assyria), where Assyria and the Mosul region saw a significant economic revival.

It became part of the Seleucid Empire after Alexander’s conquests in 332 BC. While little is known of the city from the Hellenistic period, Mosul likely belonged to the Seleucid satrapy of Syria, the Greek term for Assyria, Syria originally meaning Assyria rather than the modern nation of Syria (see Etymology of Syria), which was conquered by the Parthian Empire circa 150 BC where it once more became a part of Athura-Assyria.

The city changed hands once again with the rise of Sassanid Persia in 225 AD and became a part of Assuristan (Sassanid Persian for Assyria). Christianity was present among the indigenous Assyrian people in Mosul as early as the 1st century, although native Mesopotamian religion remained strong until the 4th century AD. It became an episcopal seat of the Assyrian Church of the East in the 6th century.

In 637 (other sources say 641), during the period of the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, the city was annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate by Utba bin Farqad Al-Salami, during the Arab Islamic Conquest, after which Assyria/Athura/Assuristan was dissolved as a geo-political entity, although the term Athura/Assyria remained as an ecclesiastical province among the Asyrians.

9th century to 1535

Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, "Siege of Mosul in 1261–63", Jami' al-tawarikh, Bibliothèque Nationale de France .

In the late 9th century control over the city was seized by the Turkish dynasts Ishaq ibn Kundajiq and his son Muhammad, but in 893 Mosul came once again under the direct control of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the early 10th century Mosul came under the control of the native Arab Hamdanid dynasty. From Mosul, the Hamdanids under Abdallah ibn Hamdan and his son Nasir al-Dawla expanded their control over the Jazira for several decades, first as governors of the Abbassids and later as de facto independent rulers. A century later they were supplanted by the Uqaylids.

Mosul was conquered by the Seljuks in the 11th century. After a period under semi-independent atabeg such as Mawdud, in 1127 it became the centre of power of the Zengid dynasty. Saladin besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1182 but finally gained control of it in 1186. In the 13th century it was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, but was spared the usual destruction since its governor, Badr al-Din Luʾluʾ, helped the Khan in his following campaigns in Syria. After the Mongol defeat in the Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks, Badr al-Din's son sided with the latter; this led to the destruction of the city, which later regained some importance but never recovered its original splendor. Mosul was thenceforth ruled by the Mongol Ilkhanid and Jalayrid dynasties, and escaped Tamerlan's destructions.

During 1165 Benjamin of Tudela passed through Mosul; in his papers he wrote that he found a small Jewish community estimated as 7000 people in Mosul, the community was led by Rabbi Zakkai (זכאי) presumably connected to the King David dynasty. In 1288–1289, the Exilarch was in Mosul and signed a supporting paper for Maimonides.[18][19] In the early 16th century Mosul was under the Turkmen federation of the Ak Koyunlu, but in 1508 it was conquered by the Persian Safawids.

Ottomans: 1517 to 1918

What started as irregular attacks in 1517 was finalized in 1538, when Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent added Mosul to his empire by capturing it from his archrivals — Safavid Persia.[20] Thenceforth Mosul was governed by a pasha. Mosul was celebrated for its line of walls, comprising seven gates with large towers, a renowned hospital (maristan) and a covered market (qaysariyya), and was also famous for its fabrics and flourishing trades.

Although Mesopotamia had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1533, gains which were confirmed by the Peace of Amasya (1555) until the reconquest of Baghdad in 1638, and the resulting treaty of the year after, Ottoman control over Mesopotamia was not decisive,[21] and the city of Mosul was considered "still a mere fortress, important for its strategic position as an offensive platform for Ottoman campaigns into Iraq, as well as a defensive stronghold and (staging post) guarding the approaches to Anatolia and to the Syrian coast. Then with the Ottoman reconquest of Baghdad (1638), the liwa’ of Mosul became an independent wilaya."[22]:202 After the Peace of Amasya, the Safavids recaptured most of Mesopotamia one more time during the reign of king Abbas I (r. 1588-1629). Amongst the newly appointed Safavid governors of Mesopotamia during those years, was Qasem Sultan Afshar, who was appointed governor of Mosul in 1622.[23][24]

Despite being a part of the Ottoman Empire, during the four centuries of Ottoman rule Mosul was considered "the most independent district" within the Middle East, following the Roman model of indirect rule through local notables.[25]:203–4 "Mosuli culture developed less along Ottoman–Turkish lines than along Iraqi–Arab lines; and Turkish, the official language of the State, was certainly not the dominant language in the province."[22]:203

In line with its status as a politically stable trade route between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf the city developed considerably during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Similar to the development of the Mamluk dynasty in Baghdad, during this time "the Jalili family was establishing itself as the undisputed master of Mosul", and "helping to connect Mosul with a pre-Ottoman, pre-Turcoman, pre-Mongol, Arab cultural heritage which was to put the town on its way to recapturing some of the prestige and prominence it had enjoyed under the golden reign of Badr ad-Din Lu’lu’."[22]:203

Along with the al-Umari and Tasin al-Mufti families, the Jalilis formed an "urban-based small and medium gentry and a new landed elite", which proceeded to displace the control of previous rural tribes.[26] Such families proceed to establish themselves through private enterprise, solidifying their influence and assets through rents on land and taxes on urban and rural manufacturing.

As well as elected officials, the social architecture of Mosul was highly influenced by the Dominican fathers who arrived in Mosul in 1750, sent by Pope Benedict XIV (Mosul had a large Christian population, predominantly indigenous Assyrians).[27] They were followed by the Dominican nuns in 1873. They established a number of schools, health clinics, a printing press and an orphanage. The nuns also established workshops to teach girls sewing and embroidery.[28] A congregation of Dominican sisters, founded in the 19th century, still had its motherhouse in Mosul by the early 21st century. Over 120 Assyrian Iraqi Sisters belonged to this congregation.[27]

In the nineteenth century the Ottoman government started to reclaim central control over its outlying provinces. Their aim was to "restore Ottoman law, and rejuvenate the military" as well as reviving "a secure tax base for the government".[29]:24–26 In order to reestablish rule in 1834 the Sultan abolished public elections for the position of governor, and began "neutraliz[ing] local families such as the Jalilis and their class."[29]:28–29 and appointing new, non-Maslawi governors directly. In line with its reintegration within central government rule, Mosul was required to conform to new Ottoman reform legislation, including the standardization of tariff rates, the consolidation of internal taxes and the integration of the administrative apparatus with the central government.[29]:26

This process started in 1834 with the appointment of Bayraktar Mehmet Pasha, who was to rule Mosul for the next four years. After the reign of Bayraktar Mehmet Pasha, the Ottoman government (wishing still to restrain the influence of powerful local families) appointed a series of governors in rapid succession, ruling “for only a brief period before being sent somewhere else to govern, making it impossible for any of them to achieve a substantial local power base.”[29]:29 Mosul's importance as a trading center declined after the opening of the Suez canal, which enabled goods to travel to and from India by sea rather than by land across Iraq and through Mosul.

A coffee house in Mosul, 1914.

Mosul was the capital of Mosul Vilayet one of the three vilayets (provinces) of Ottoman Iraq,with a brief break in 1623 when Persia seized the city.

During World War I the Ottoman Empire sided with Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria against the British Empire, France and the Russian Empire. In northern Mesopotamia, northern Syria and south east Turkey the Ottomans held the armed support of the Kurds, Turcomans, Circassians and some Arab groups, while the British and Russians were militarily supported by the Assyrians and Armenians (particularly in the wake of the Armenian genocide and Assyrian genocide), and some Arab groups. The Ottomans were defeated, and in 1918 the British occupied Mosul, and indeed the whole of Iraq.

1918 to 2003

At the end of World War I in October 1918, after the signature of the Armistice of Mudros, British forces occupied Mosul. After the war, the city and the surrounding area became part of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (1918–20), and shortly Mandatory Iraq (1920–32). This mandate was contested by Turkey which continued to claim the area based on the fact that it was under Ottoman control during the signature of the Armistice. In the Treaty of Lausanne, the dispute over Mosul was left for future resolution by the League of Nations. Iraq's possession of Mosul was confirmed by the League of Nations brokered agreement between Turkey and Great Britain in 1926. Former Ottoman Mosul Vilayet eventually became Nineveh Province of Iraq, but Mosul remained the provincial capital.

Mosul in 1932

The city's fortunes revived with the discovery of oil in the area, from the late 1920s onward. It became a nexus for the movement of oil via truck and pipeline to both Turkey and Syria. Qyuarrah Refinery was built within about an hour's drive from the city and was used to process tar for road-building projects. It was damaged but not destroyed during the Iran–Iraq War.

The opening of the University of Mosul in 1967 enabled the education of many in the city and surrounding areas.

After the 1991 uprisings by the Kurds Mosul did not fall within the Kurdish-ruled area, but it was included in the northern no-fly zone imposed and patrolled by the United States and Britain between 1991 and 2003.

Although this prevented Saddam's forces from mounting large-scale military operations again in the region, it did not stop the regime from implementing a steady policy of "Arabisation" by which the demography of some areas of Nineveh Governorate were gradually changed. Despite the program Mosul and its surrounding towns and villages remained home to a mixture of Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens, Shabaks, a few Jews, and isolated populations of Yazidis, Mandeans, Kawliya and Circassians. Saddam was able to garrison portions of the 5th Army within the city of Mosul, had Mosul International Airport under military control, and recruited heavily from the city for his military's officer corps; this may have been due to the fact that most of the officers and generals of the Iraqi Army were from Mosul long before the Saddam regime era.

2003 to 2014

Saddam Hussein's sons Qusay and Uday were killed in a gun battle in Mosul on July 22, 2003

When the 2003 invasion of Iraq was being planned, the United States had originally intended to base troops in Turkey and mount a thrust into northern Iraq to capture Mosul. However, the Turkish parliament refused to grant permission for the operation. When the Iraq War did break out in March 2003, US military activity in the area was confined to strategic bombing with airdropped special forces operating in the vicinity. Mosul fell on April 11, 2003, when the Iraqi Army 5th Corps, loyal to Saddam, abandoned the city and eventually surrendered, two days after the fall of Baghdad. US Army Special Forces with Kurdish fighters quickly took civil control of the city. Thereafter began widespread looting before an agreement was reached to cede overall control to US forces.

On July 22, 2003, Saddam Hussein's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, were killed in a gun battle with Coalition forces in Mosul after a failed attempt at their apprehension.[30] The city also served as the operational base for the US Army's 101st Airborne Division during the occupational phase of the Operation Iraqi Freedom. During its tenure, the 101st Airborne Division was able to extensively survey the city and, advised by the 431st Civil Affairs Battalion, non-governmental organizations, and the people of Mosul, began reconstruction work by employing the people of Mosul in the areas of security, electricity, local governance, drinking water, wastewater, trash disposal, roads, bridges, and environmental concerns.[31] Other US Army units to have occupied the city include the 4th Brigade Combat Team of the 1st Cavalry Division, the 172nd Stryker Brigade, the 3rd Brigade-2nd Infantry Division, 18th Engineer Brigade (Combat), Alpha Company 14th Engineer Battalion-555th Combat Engineer Brigade, 1st Brigade-25th Infantry Division, the 511th Military Police Company, the 812th Military Police Company and company-size units from Reserve components, an element of the 364th Civil Affairs Brigade, and the 404th Civil Affairs Battalion which covered the areas north of the Green Line.

A soldier from the 1st Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division, engages enemy targets with his machine gun on November 11, 2004

On June 24, 2004, a coordinated series of car-bombs killed 62 people, many of them policemen.

The memorial that stands outside the entrance to the Dining Hall on FOB Marez where the December 21, 2004 suicide attack occurred.

On December 21, 2004, fourteen US soldiers, four American employees of Halliburton, and four Iraqi soldiers were killed in a suicide attack on a dining hall at the Forward Operating Base (FOB) Marez next to the main US military airfield at Mosul. The Pentagon reported that 72 other personnel were injured in the attack carried out by a suicide bomber wearing an explosive vest and the uniform of the Iraqi security services. The Islamist group Army of Ansar al-Sunna (partly evolved from Ansar al-Islam) declared responsibility for the attack in an Internet statement.

U.S. Army soldiers patrol the streets of Mosul, January 2005

In December 2007, Iraq reopened Mosul International Airport. An Iraqi Airways flight carried 152 Hajj pilgrims to Baghdad, the first commercial flight since US forces declared a no-fly zone in 1993, although further commercial flight remained prohibited.[32] On January 23, 2008, an explosion in an apartment building killed 36 people. The following day, a suicide bomber dressed as a police officer assassinated the local police chief, Brig. Gen. Salah Mohammed al-Jubouri, the director of police for Ninevah province, as he toured the site of the blast.[33]

In May 2008, a military offensive of the Ninawa campaign was launched by US-backed Iraqi Army Forces led by Maj. Gen. Riyadh Jalal Tawfiq, the commander of military operations in Mosul, in the hope of bringing back stability and security to the city.[34] Though the representatives of Mosul in the Iraqi Parliament, the intellectuals of the city, and other concerned humanitarian groups agreed on the pressing need for a solution to the unbearable conditions of the city, they still believed that the solution was merely political and administrative. They also questioned whether such a large scale military offensive would spare the lives of innocent people.[35]

All these factors deprived the city of its historical, scientific, and intellectual foundations in the last 4 years, when many scientists, professors, academics, doctors, health professionals, engineers, lawyers, journalists, religious clergy (both Muslims and Christians), historians, as well as professionals and artists in all walks of life, were either killed or forced to leave the city under the threat of being shot, exactly as happened elsewhere in Iraq in the years following 2003.[36][37][38][39]

In 2008, many Assyrian Christians (about 12,000) fled the city following a wave of murders and threats against their community. The murder of a dozen Assyrians, threats that others would be murdered unless they converted to Islam and the destruction of their houses sparked a rapid exodus of the Christian population. Some families crossed the borders to Syria and Turkey while others were given shelter in churches and monasteries. Accusations were exchanged between Sunni fundamentalists and some Kurdish groups for being behind this new exodus. For the time being the motivation of these acts is unclear, but some claims linked it to the imminent provincial elections which took place in January 2009, and the related Assyrian Christians' demands for broader representation in the provincial councils.[40][41]

As was predicted by the DIA and others,[42] Mosul was attacked on June 4, 2014 and after 6 days of fighting, on June 10, 2014, Islamic State took over the city during the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive.[43][44][45] As of August 2014, the city's new IS administration was initially dysfunctional with frequent power cuts, tainted water supply, collapse of infrastructure support and failing health care.[46]

Government by Islamic State (IS)

Further information: Fall of Mosul

On June 10, 2014, Islamic State (IS) took control of Mosul.[47][48] Troop shortages and infighting among top officers and Iraqi political leaders played into Islamic State's hands and fuelled panic that led to the city's abandonment.[49] Kurdish intelligence had been warned by a reliable source in early 2014 that Mosul would be attacked by IS and ex-Baathists (and had informed the US and UK);[50] however, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and the Defence Minister turned down repeated offers of help from the peshmerga. Half a million people escaped on foot or by car in the next 2 days.[51] IS acquired three divisions' worth of up-to-date American arms and munitions—including M1129 Stryker 120-mm mortars and at least 700 armoured Humvee vehicles from the then fleeing, or since massacred, Iraqi army.[52] Many residents initially welcomed IS[53] and according to a member of the UK Defence Select Committee Mosul "fell because the people living there were fed up with the sectarianism of the Shia dominated Iraqi government."[52]

On 21 January 2015, the US began coordinating airstrikes with a Kurdish-launched offensive, to help them begin the planned operation to retake the city of Mosul.[54]

Once home to at least 70,000 Assyrian Christians there are possibly none left today in Mosul, any that do remain are forced to pay a tax for remaining Christian, and live under the constant threat of violence.[55][56][57] The indigenous Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamian ancestry, who have a history in the region dating back over 5,000 years suffered their Christian churches and monasteries being vandalised and burned down,[58] their ancient Assyrian heritage sites dating back to the Iron Age destroyed, their homes and possessions stolen by IS,[59] and ultimatums to convert to Islam, leave their ancient homelands, or be murdered.[59][60]

During the IS government of Mosul, several phone lines have been cut by IS and many cell phone towers and internet access points were destroyed.[61] According to western and pro-Iraqi government press, the residents of the city have been de facto prisoners,[62] forbidden to leave the city unless they post with IS a significant collateral of family members, personal wealth and property. They may then leave the city upon paying a significant "departure tax" [63] on a three-day pass (for a higher fee they can surrender their home, pay the fee and leave for good) and if those with a three-day pass fail to return in that time their assets will be seized and family will be killed.[64]

Most female Yazidis from Mosul and the greater Mosul region (Nineveh) are imprisoned and occasionally many are slaughtered because of their resistance[65] to being sold as sex slaves.[66] Islamic State occupiers have murdered or driven out most minority groups and converted some Yazidi males and Christians to Islam. Women are required to cover their bodies from head to foot in a strict variant of Sharia rule and men are required to fully grow their beards and hair as does the members of Islamic State. Life in Mosul is one of violent oppression where people suspected of activism against the occupiers, resistance activities, homosexuality, promiscuity or adultery are brutally and summarily tortured and murdered.[67]

The IS governor of Mosul, Alian Natiq Mabroush was killed on 18 March 2016 along with ten other jihadist leaders in a U.S. airstrike.[68]

During the occupation residents have fought back against IS. In one notable incident they were able to kill five IS militants and destroy two of their vehicles.[69]

Women

Women must be accompanied by a male guardian[51][70] and wear clothing that covers their body completely including gloves for the hands, niqab for the head and khimar for the full coverage of the body from shoulders to feet.[67]

According to Canadian-based NGO "The RINJ Foundation" which operates medical clinics in Mosul,[71] rape cases in the city prove a pattern of genocide and will lead to a conviction of genocide against Islamic State, in the International Criminal Court, a permanent international tribunal to prosecute individuals for war-time rape, genocide, crimes against humanity, and aggression.[72]

Islamic State was in August 2015 reported to be selling captured women and girls to sex slave traders.[73]

Persecution of religious and ethnic minorities and destruction of cultural sites

IS issued an edict expelling (in effect ethnically cleansing) the remaining predominantly ethnic Assyrian and Armenian Christian Mosul citizens, after the Christians refused to attend a meeting to discuss their future status. According to Duraid Hikmat, an expert on minority relationships and resident of Mosul, the Christians were fearful to attend.[74] Emboldened IS authorities systematically destroyed and vandalised Abrahamic cultural artifacts such as the cross from St. Ephrem's Cathedral, the tomb of Jonah, and a statue of the Virgin Mary. IS militants destroyed and pillaged the Tomb of Seth in Mosul. Artifacts within the tomb were removed to an unknown location.[75]

Students from Muslim Shia and Sufi minorities have also been abducted.[9]

According to a UN report IS forces are persecuting ethnic groups in and near Mosul. The Assyrians, Kurds, Armenians, Yazidis, Turcoman, Mandeans, Kawliya and Shabaks are victims of unprovoked religiously motivated murders, assaults, theft, kidnappings and the destruction of their cultural sites.[74]

Detention of diplomats

Turkish diplomats and consular staff were detained for over 100 days.[81]

Human rights

Scores of people have been executed without fair trial.[82][83] Civilians living in Mosul are not permitted to leave IS-controlled areas. IS has executed several civilians that were trying to flee Mosul.[84]

Armed opposition

The urban guerrilla warfare groups may be called the Nabi Yunus Brigade after the Nabi Yunus mosque, or the Kataeb al-Mosul (Mosul Brigade).[85] The brigade claims to have killed IS members with sniper fire.[86] In the countryside around Mosul, Kurdish and Assyrian militia have also taken up arms to resist IS oppression, and have successfully repelled IS attacks on Kurdish and Assyrian towns and villages.[87][88]

Battle of Mosul (2016)

After more than two years of IS occupation of Mosul, Iraqi, Kurdish, American, and French forces, launched a joint offensive to recapture the city on 16 October 2016.[89][90] The battle for Mosul is considered key in the military intervention against IS.[91] Turkish warplanes participated in the coalition strikes on Mosul, amid the escalating dispute between Baghdad and Ankara about the Turkish presence in Bashiqa. It is the largest deployment of Iraqi forces since the 2003 invasion by U.S. and coalition forces.[92]

Demography

A souk (traditional market) in Mosul, 1932

During the 20th century, Mosul city had been indicative of the mingling ethnic and religious cultures of Iraq. There used to be a Sunni Arab majority in urban areas, such as downtown Mosul west of the Tigris; across the Tigris and further north in the suburban areas, thousands of Assyrians, Kurds, Turkmens, Shabaks, Yazidis, Armenians and Mandeans made up the rest of Mosul's population.[93] Shabaks were concentrated on the eastern outskirts of the city.

Religion

Assyrian church in Mosul in about 1850

Mosul had an ancient Jewish population. Like their counterparts elsewhere in Iraq, most were forced out in 1950–51. Israel's government actively sought to create the conditions for this return, in a policy known as gathering in the exiles. Most Iraqi Jews have moved to Israel, and some to the United States.[94] In 2003, during the Iraq War, a rabbi in the American army found an abandoned, dilapidated synagogue in Mosul dating back to the 13th century.[95][96]

During the IS occupation, religious minorities were targeted by IS to convert to Islam, pay tribute (jizya) money, leave, or be killed.[97] During the IS attack on Mosul, over 100,000 Christians fled the city.[98] The persecution of Christians in Mosul and the surrounding Nineveh Plains removed a Christian witness that had been present since the 1st century.[99]

Government

There are sometimes impromptu checkpoints. Beginning in 2014, there were public executions held by IS.[100]

Economy

Inflation and unemployment are high.[101]

Infrastructure

The Mosul Dam was designed to supply Mosul with hydroelectricity and water supplies. However water supply cuts are common[102] and mobile phone networks have been shut down.[100]

Climate

Mosul has a hot semi-arid climate with extremely hot dry summers and moderately wet, relatively cool winters.

Climate data for Mosul
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 21.1
(70)		 26.9
(80.4)		 31.8
(89.2)		 35.5
(95.9)		 42.9
(109.2)		 44.1
(111.4)		 47.8
(118)		 49.3
(120.7)		 46.1
(115)		 42.2
(108)		 32.5
(90.5)		 25.0
(77)		 49.3
(120.7)
Average high °C (°F) 12.4
(54.3)		 14.8
(58.6)		 19.3
(66.7)		 25.2
(77.4)		 32.7
(90.9)		 39.2
(102.6)		 42.9
(109.2)		 42.6
(108.7)		 38.2
(100.8)		 30.6
(87.1)		 21.1
(70)		 14.1
(57.4)		 27.76
(81.98)
Average low °C (°F) 2.2
(36)		 3.4
(38.1)		 6.8
(44.2)		 11.2
(52.2)		 16.2
(61.2)		 21.3
(70.3)		 25.0
(77)		 24.2
(75.6)		 19.1
(66.4)		 13.5
(56.3)		 7.2
(45)		 3.8
(38.8)		 12.83
(55.09)
Record low °C (°F) −17.6
(0.3)		 −12.3
(9.9)		 −5.8
(21.6)		 −4.0
(24.8)		 2.5
(36.5)		 9.7
(49.5)		 11.6
(52.9)		 14.5
(58.1)		 8.9
(48)		 −2.6
(27.3)		 −6.1
(21)		 −15.4
(4.3)		 −17.6
(0.3)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 62.1
(2.445)		 62.7
(2.469)		 63.2
(2.488)		 44.1
(1.736)		 15.2
(0.598)		 1.1
(0.043)		 0.2
(0.008)		 0.0
(0)		 0.3
(0.012)		 11.8
(0.465)		 45.0
(1.772)		 57.9
(2.28)		 363.6
(14.316)
Average precipitation days 11 11 12 9 6 0 0 0 0 5 7 10 71
Source #1: World Meteorological Organisation (UN)[103]
Source #2: Weatherbase (extremes only)[104]

Historical and religious buildings

Mosul is rich in old historical places and ancient buildings: mosques, castles, churches, monasteries, and schools, many of which have architectural features and decorative work of significance. The town center is dominated by a maze of streets and attractive 19th-century houses. There are old houses here of beauty. The markets are particularly interesting not simply for themselves alone but for the mixture of people who jostle there: Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Iraqi Jews, Kurdish Jews, Iraqi Turkmens, Armenians, Yazidi, Mandeans, Romani and Shabaks.

The Mosul Museum contains many interesting finds from the ancient sites of the old Assyrian capital cities Nineveh and Nimrud. The Mosul Museum is a beautiful old building, around a courtyard and with an impressive facade of Mosul marble containing displays of Mosul life depicted in tableau form. Recently, On February 26, 2015, IS militants destroyed the ancient Assyrian artifacts of the museum.

The English writer Agatha Christie lived in Mosul whilst her second husband, an archaeologist, was involved in the excavation in Nimrud.

Mosques and shrines

Mosque in Mosul

Churches and monasteries

Mosul had the highest proportion of Assyrian Christians of all the Iraqi cities outside of the Kurdish region, and contains several interesting old churches, some of which originally date back to the early centuries of Christianity. Its ancient Assyrian churches are often hidden and their entrances in thick walls are not easy to find. Some of them have suffered from overmuch restoration.

Other Christian historical buildings:

Other sites

Arts

Painting

The so-called Mosul School of Painting refers to a style of miniature painting that developed in northern Iraq in the late 12th to early 13th century under the patronage of the Zangid dynasty (1127–1222). In technique and style the Mosul school was similar to the painting of the Seljuq Turks, who controlled Iraq at that time, but the Mosul artists had a sharper sense of realism based on the subject matter and degree of detail in the painting rather than on representation in three dimensions, which did not occur. Most of the Mosul iconography was Seljuq—for example, the use of figures seated cross-legged in a frontal position. Certain symbolic elements however, such as the crescent and serpents, were derived from the classical Mesopotamian repertory.

Most Mosul paintings were illustrations of manuscripts—mainly scientific works, animal books, and lyric poetry. A frontispiece painting, now held in the Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, dating from a late 12th century copy of Galen's medical treatise, the Kitab al-diriyak ("Book of Antidotes"), is a good example of the earlier work of the Mosul school. It depicts four figures surrounding a central, seated figure who holds a crescent-shaped halo. The painting is in a variety of whole hues; reds, blues, greens, and gold. The Küfic lettering is blue. The total effect is best described as majestic. Another mid-13th century frontispiece held in the Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, to another copy of the same text suggests the quality of later Mosul painting. There is realism in its depiction of the preparation of a ruler's meal and of horsemen engaged in various activities, and the painting is as many hued as that of the early Mosul school, yet it is somehow less spirited. The composition is more elaborate but less successful. By this time the Baghdad school, which combined the styles of the Syrian and early Mosul schools, had begun to dominate. With the invasion of the Mongols in the mid-13th century the Mosul school came to an end, but its achievements were influential in both the Mamluk and the Mongol schools of miniature painting.

Metalwork

From the 13th-century metal craftsmen centred in Mosul influenced the metalwork of the Islamic world, from North Africa to eastern Iran. Under the active patronage of the Zangid dynasty, the Mosul School developed an extraordinarily refined technique of inlay—particularly in silver—far overshadowing the earlier work of the Sāmānids in Persia and the Būyids in Iraq.

Mosul craftsmen used both gold and silver for inlay on bronze and brass. After delicate engraving had prepared the surface of the piece, strips of gold and silver were worked so carefully that not the slightest irregularity appeared in the whole of the elaborate design. The technique was carried by Mosul metalworkers to Aleppo, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and Persia; similar pieces from those centres are called Mosul bronzes.

Among the most famous surviving Mosul pieces is a brass ewer inlaid with silver from 1232, and now in the British Museum, by the artist Shujā’ ibn Mana. The ewer features representational as well as abstract design, depicting battle scenes, animals and musicians within medallions. Mosul metalworkers also created pieces for Eastern Christians. A candlestick of this variety from 1238 and housed in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, attributed to Dà’ūd ibn Salamah of Mosul, is bronze with silver inlay. It displays the familiar medallions but is also engraved with scenes showing Christ as a child. Rows of standing figures, probably saints, decorate the base. The background is decorated with typically Islamic vine scrolls and intricate arabesques, giving the piece a unique look.

Education

As per IS policy, even primary schools are gender segregated, putting a strain on educational resources.[100] Previously the city's largest university, the University of Mosul was closed in 2014.[113]

Sport

The city has one football team capable of competing in the top-flight of Iraqi football – Mosul FC.

Notable Moslawis

See also

References

  1. ↑ Gladstone, Philip (10 February 2014). "Synop Information for ORBM (40608) in Mosul, Iraq". Weather Quality Reporter. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  2. ↑ "Iraqi City of Mosul Transformed a Year After Islamic State Capture". Wall Street Journal.
  3. ↑ "UNSD Demographic Statistics". United Nations Statistics Division 1987.
  4. ↑ Hawramy, Fazel; Harding, Luke (20 October 2016). "Iraqi and Kurdish forces close in on Mosul after making quick gains". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  5. ↑ Soane, E.B. To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise.' John Murray: London, 1912. p. 92.
  6. ↑ Rev. W.A. Wigram (1929). 'The Assyrians and Their Neighbours. London.
  7. ↑ Unrepresented Nations and People Organization (UNPO). Assyrians the Indigenous People of Iraq [1]
  8. ↑ "Mosul". Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. 1 January 2004.
  9. 1 2 "Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July – 10 September 2014" (PDF). UNAMI and OHCHR. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  10. ↑ Dalley, Stephanie (1993). "Nineveh After 612 BC." Alt-Orientanlische Forshchungen 20. p.134.
  11. ↑ Robert D Biggs - "Especially in view of the very early establishment of Christianity in Assyria and its continuity to the present and the continuity of the population, I think there is every likelihood that ancient Assyrians are among the ancestors of modern Assyrians of the area."
  12. ↑ Dana Ford & Mohammed Tawfeeq (25 July 2014). "ISIS militants destroy the tomb of Jonah". CNN.
  13. ↑ Dalley, Stephanie (1993) "Nineveh After 612 BC," Alt-Orientanlische Forshchungen 20, p.134
  14. ↑ Reuters article - reprinted in Nabu Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 1 (1997)
  15. ↑ "Mosul, Iraq" from AtlasTours.net
  16. ↑ "The war against Islamic State (2): Mosul beckons". The Economist. 11 April 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  17. ↑ Dalley, Stephanie, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5
  18. ↑ עזרא לניאדו, יהודי מוצל, מגלות שומרון עד מבצע עזרא ונחמיה, המכון לחקר יהדות מוצל, טירת-כרמל: ה'תשמ"א.
  19. ↑ Davidson, Herbert A. (2005). Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 560. ISBN 0-19-517321-X.
  20. ↑ Rothman 2015, p. 236.
  21. ↑ Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0521291637.
  22. 1 2 3 Kemp, Percy (1983). "Power and Knowledge in Jalili Mosul". Middle Eastern Studies. 19 (2): 201–12. doi:10.1080/00263208308700543.
  23. ↑ Nasiri & Floor 2008, p. 248.
  24. ↑ Oberling 1984, pp. 582-586.
  25. ↑ Al-Tikriti, Nabil (2007). "Ottoman Iraq". Journal of the Historical Society. 7 (2): 201–11. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2007.00214.x.
  26. ↑ Khoury, Dina Rizk (1997), State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire. Mosul, 1540–1834, Studies in Islamic Civilization, Cambridge, p. 19
  27. 1 2 Woods, Richard (2006). "Iraq Perspectives: Catholics and Dominicans in Iraq". Dominican Life. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
  28. ↑ Rasam, Suha (2005). Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Gracewing. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Shields, Sarah D. (2000). Mosul Before Iraq; Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells. Albanay: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4487-2.
  30. ↑ Pentagon: Saddam's sons killed in raid . CNN.com (2003-07-22). Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  31. ↑ Mosul. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  32. ↑ Iraq reopens Mosul airport after 14 years – US military
  33. ↑ Gamel, Kim (January 25, 2008). "Provincial Police Chief Killed in Mosul". Associated Press.
  34. ↑ "Sadrists and Iraqi Government Reach Truce Deal". New York Times. May 11, 2008.
  35. ↑ Archived October 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  36. ↑ Plight of Iraqi Academics at the Wayback Machine (archived May 15, 2006)
  37. ↑ Human Rights in Iraq at the Wayback Machine (archived June 29, 2006)
  38. ↑ "Iraq's deadly brain drain". France 24. Retrieved 2011-07-02.
  39. ↑ "Losing Mosul?". Time. October 16, 2004. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
  40. ↑ Muir, Jim. (2008-10-28) "Iraqi Christians' fear of exile". BBC News. Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  41. ↑ "Christians flee Iraqi city after killings, threats, officials say." CNN. 11 October 2008.
  42. ↑ Micheal O'Brien (June 2015). "Islamic-Schism Prelude to WWIII?". The RINJ Foundation.
  43. ↑ Abdulrahim, Raja (5 October 2014). "Iraqi Kurdish forces moving toward complex battle in Mosul". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  44. ↑ "Iraq's battles need sense of resolve". BBC News.
  45. ↑ "Iraq, Islamic State, Baghdad, War", Al monitor, Sep 2014
  46. ↑ Laila Ahmed. "Since Islamic State swept into Mosul, we live encircled by its dark fear". The Guardian.
  47. ↑ "Iraqi insurgents seize city". BBC. 11 June 2014.
  48. ↑ "Militant group seizes cities in Iraq". CNN. 11 June 2014.
  49. ↑ "How Mosul fell - An Iraqi general disputes Baghdad's story". Reuters. 14 October 2014.
  50. ↑ Spencer, Richard (22 June 2014). "How US and Britain were warned of Isis advance in Iraq but 'turned a deaf ear'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  51. 1 2 "Since Islamic State swept into Mosul, we live encircled by its dark fear". The Guardian. 29 August 2014.
  52. 1 2 Holloway, Adam (26 September 2014). "Sharing a border with Isil - the world's most dangerous state". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  53. ↑ "Under an ISIS Flag, the Sons of Mosul Are Rallying". The Daily Beast. 16 June 2014.
  54. ↑ Morris, Loveday (January 22, 2015), "Kurds say they have ejected Islamic State militants from large area in Northern Iraq", The Washington Post, retrieved January 25, 2015
  55. ↑ "You are being redirected...".
  56. ↑ Leo Hohmann. "Bishop tells West: Defeat ISIS or give Christians asylum". WorldNetDaily.
  57. ↑ Judit Neurink (June 19, 2014). "Mosul Christians Out of the City for Good". Rudaw.
  58. ↑ "ISIS destroy the oldest Christian monastery in Mosul, Iraq".
  59. 1 2 Hawramy, Fazel (24 July 2014). "'They are savages,' say Christians forced to flee Mosul by Isis" – via The Guardian.
  60. ↑ "Patrick Cockburn reports on the brutal reality of life in Mosul under Isis". 9 November 2014.
  61. ↑ Ted Thornhill (15 December 2014). "Isis puts Iraq's second-biggest city into lockdown, cutting phone lines and banning residents from leaving ahead of expected assaults from government forces". The Daily Mail.
  62. ↑ Loveday morris (October 19, 2015). "Isis in Iraq: Mosul residents are paying traffickers and risking their lives to escape cruel grip of Islamic State". The Independent.
  63. ↑ Sinan Salaheddin (March 13, 2015). "ISIS Blocks Trapped Residents From Leaving Iraq's Mosul". Huffington Post.
  64. ↑ Abdelhak Mamoun (Mar 11, 2015). "ISIS warns people of Mosul not to leave city". Iraqi News.
  65. ↑ Micheal O'Brien (October 2, 2015). "Catching The ISIS Child Sex Slave Traders in Mosul Iraq". The RINJ Foundation.
  66. ↑ Priya Joshi. "Isis: Hundreds of Yazidi captives slaughtered in Mosul". International Business Times.
  67. 1 2 Laila Ahmed (9 June 2015). "Inside Mosul: What's life like under Islamic State?". BBC News.
  68. ↑ "ISIS governor of Mosul killed in coalition airstrike - ARA News". 18 March 2016.
  69. ↑ http://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/mosul-residents-clash-with-isis-members/
  70. ↑ "Islamic State crisis: Mother fears for son at Mosul school". BBC News. 29 September 2014.
  71. ↑ Larry Hart. "The Heroes of Mosul". Times Of Israel.
  72. ↑ "Rape in Conflict Is a War Crime, No Matter How You Spin It". Huffington Post / World Post.
  73. ↑ "Jewish Schindler" Draws Backlash For Campaign To Save ISIS Sex Slaves". Vocativ.
  74. 1 2 Rubin, Alissa J (18 July 2014), "ISIS Forces Last Iraqi Christians to Flee Mosul", The New York Times, retrieved 1 August 2013
  75. ↑ "ISIS destroys Prophet Sheth shrine in Mosul". Al Arabiya. 26 July 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
  76. ↑ "Isis militants blow up Jonah's tomb". The Guardian. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
  77. ↑ Buchanan, Rose Troup and Saul, Heather (25 February 2015) Isis burns thousands of books and rare manuscripts from Mosul's libraries The Independent
  78. ↑ "ISIL video shows destruction of Mosul artefacts". Al Jazeera. 27 Feb 2015.
  79. ↑ Shaheen, Kareem (26 February 2015). "Isis fighters destroy ancient artefacts at Mosul museum". The Guardian.
  80. ↑ Kariml, Ammar; Mojon, Jean-Marc (31 July 2014). "In Mosul, resistance against ISIS rises from city's rubble". The Daily Star. Lebanon. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
  81. ↑ Erkuş, Sevil (25 September 2014). "Mosul Consulate 'overpowered' by ISIL militants at the gates, Turkish hostage says". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  82. ↑ "UN Envoy Condemns Public Execution of Human Rights Lawyer, Ms. Sameera Al-Nuaimy". United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI).
  83. ↑ "Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July – 10 September 2014" (PDF). UNAMI Human Rights Office. Executions following illegal/irregular/unlawful courts, in disrespect of due process and fair trial standards
  84. ↑ "ISIS: Mosul residents trapped". The Huffington Post. Mar 13, 2015.
  85. ↑ Mezzofiore, Gianluca (30 July 2014). "Mosul Brigades: Local Armed Resistance to Islamic State Gains Support". International Business Times. UK. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
  86. ↑ "IS Cracks Down In Mosul, Fearing Residents Mobilizing Against Them". Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty.
  87. ↑ "The Assyrian Christian militia are keeping well-armed Isis at bay - but they are running out of ammunition". 22 February 2015.
  88. ↑ Cetti-Roberts, Matt (7 March 2015). "Inside the Christian Militias Defending the Nineveh Plains".
  89. ↑ "Battle for Mosul: Iraq and Kurdish troops make gains". BBC News. 17 October 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
  90. ↑ Blau, Max; Park, Madison; McLaughlin, Eliott C. (17 October 2016). "Battle for Mosul: Iraqi forces close in". CNN. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
  91. ↑ Yan, Holly; Muaddi, Nadeem (17 October 2016). "Why the battle for Mosul matters in the fight against ISIS". CNN. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
  92. ↑ "What is the battle for Mosul? Everything you need to know about the fight to liberate Isil's last bastion of power in Iraq". The Daily Telegraph. 17 October 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
  93. ↑ Mosul|Encyclopedia.com: Facts, Pictures, Information. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  94. ↑ Mosul. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  95. ↑ Cf. Carlos C. Huerta, Jewish heartbreak and hope in Nineveh.
  96. ↑ "Jewish Mosul Revisited Jewish heartbreak and hope in Nineveh, By Carlos C. Huerta ظٹظ‡ظˆط¯ ط§ظ"ظ…ظˆطµظ"". almosul.org. Archived from the original on 19 November 2010.
  97. ↑ "Iraq: ISIS Abducting, Killing, Expelling Minorities". Human Rights Watch. 19 July 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  98. ↑ Gutteridge, Nick (20 October 2015). "ISIS barbarity: How 100,000 Christians fled Mosul in ONE NIGHT". Express News. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  99. ↑ Logan, Lara (22 March 2015). "Iraq's Christians persecuted by ISIS". CBS News. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  100. 1 2 3 "Islamic State: Diary of life in Mosul". BBC.
  101. ↑ Mohammad Moslawi; Fazel Hawramy & Luke Harding. "Citizens of Mosul endure economic collapse and repression under Isis rule". Guardian. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
  102. ↑ "In Mosul, Water, Electricity Shortages, And Warnings Of Disease".
  103. ↑ "World Weather Information Service – Mosul". United Nations. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
  104. ↑ "Mosul, Iraq Travel Weather Averages". Weatherbase. Retrieved 2012-12-19.
  105. ↑ "ISIS destroys 'Jonah's tomb' in Mosul". Al Arabiya. 25 July 2014.
  106. ↑ "Islamic State destroys ancient Mosul mosque, the third in a week". The Guardian. Associated Press. 28 July 2014.
  107. ↑ Clark, Heather (27 July 2014). "Muslim Militants Blow Up Tombs of Biblical Jonah, Daniel in Iraq". Christian News Network. Retrieved 28 July 2014. Al-Sumaria News also reported on Thursday that local Mosul official Zuhair al-Chalabi told the outlet that ISIS likewise “implanted explosives around Prophet Daniel's tomb in Mosul and blasted it, leading to its destruction.”
  108. ↑ Hafiz, Yasmine. "ISIS Destroys Jonah's Tomb In Mosul, Iraq, As Militant Violence Continues". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 28 July 2014. The tomb of Daniel, a man revered by Muslims as a prophet though unlike Jonah, he is not mentioned in the Quran, has also been reportedly destroyed. Al-Arabiya reports that Zuhair al-Chalabi, a local Mosul official, told Al-Samaria News that "ISIS implanted explosives around Prophet Daniel's tomb in Mosul and blasted it, leading to its destruction."
  109. ↑ "ISIS destroys beloved mosque in central Mosul". Rudaw.
  110. ↑ Gianluca Mezzofiore. "Iraq: Isis destroys 19th century Ottoman mosque in central Mosul". International Business Times UK.
  111. ↑ Chaplains Struggle to Protect Monastery in Iraq. NPR's Morning Edition, 21 November 2007. Retrieved on 2011-07-02.
  112. ↑ Retrieved on 2016-01-19
  113. ↑ "ISIS Takeover In Iraq: Mosul University Students, Faculty Uncertain About The Future Of Higher Education". International Business Times. 3 December 2014.

Sources

Further reading

Published in the 19th century
Published in the 20th century
Published in the 21st century
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mosul.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mosul.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/3/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.