Norse colonization of North America

The Norse colonization of North America began as early as the 10th century AD when Norsemen explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic including the northeastern fringes of North America.[1] Viking houses were found at L’Anse aux Meadows near the northern tip of Newfoundland in 1961. This discovery aided the reignition of archaeological exploration for the Vikings in the north Atlantic.[2]

The Norse colony in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years. Continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies. While voyages, for example to collect timber, are likely to have occurred for some time, there is no evidence of enduring Norse settlements on mainland North America.[3]

Norse Greenland

Main article: History of Greenland
A map of the Eastern Settlement on Greenland, covering approximately the modern municipalities of Qaqortoq, Narssaq and Nanortalik. Eiriksfjord (Erik's fjord) and his farm Brattahlid are shown, as is the location of the bishopric at Gardar.

According to the Sagas of Icelanders, Norsemen from Iceland first settled Greenland in the 980s. There is no special reason to doubt the authority of the information that the sagas supply regarding the very beginning of the settlement, but they cannot be treated as primary evidence for the history of Norse Greenland because they embody the literary preoccupations of writers and audiences in medieval Iceland that are not always reliable.[4]

Erik the Red (Old Norse: Eiríkr rauði), having been banished from Iceland for manslaughter, allegedly explored the uninhabited southwestern coast of Greenland during the three years of his banishment.[5][6] He made plans to entice settlers to the area, even purposefully choosing the name Greenland to attract potential colonists, saying "that people would be more eager to go there because the land had a good name".[7] The inner reaches of one long fjord, named Eiriksfjord after him, was where he eventually established his estate Brattahlid. He issued tracts of land to his followers.[8]

Map showing the exent of the Norse world

At its peak, the colony consisted of two settlements, the Eastern, at the southern tip of Greenland and the Western Settlement, partway up the west coast of Greenland (a smaller settlement near the Eastern Settlement is sometimes considered the Middle Settlement), with a combined population of 2,000–3,000;[9] at least 400 farms have been identified by archaeologists.[8] Norse Greenland had a bishopric (at Garðar) and exported walrus ivory, furs, rope, sheep, whale or seal blubber, live animals such as polar bears, and cattle hides. In 1126, the population requested a Bishop (headquartered at Garðar), and in 1261, they accepted the overlordship of the Norwegian King. They continued to have their own law and became almost completely independent after 1349, the time of the Black Death. In 1380, the Norwegian Kingdom entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark.[10]

Western trade and decline

There is evidence of Norse trade with the natives (called Skraelings by the Vikings). The Norse would have encountered both Native Americans (the Beothuk, related to the Algonquin) and the Thule, the ancestors of the Inuit. The Dorset had withdrawn from Greenland before the Norse settlement of the island. Items such as comb fragments, pieces of iron cooking utensils and chisels, chess pieces, ship rivets, carpenter's planes, and oaken ship fragments used in Inuit boats have been found far beyond the traditional range of Norse colonization. A small ivory statue that appears to represent a European has also been found among the ruins of an Inuit community house.[10]

The colony began to decline in the 14th century. The Western Settlement was abandoned around 1350, and the last bishop at Garðar died in 1377.[10] After a marriage was recorded in 1408, no written records mention the settlers. It is probable that the Eastern Settlement was defunct by the late 15th century. The most recent radiocarbon date found in Norse settlements as of 2002 was 1430 (± 15 years). Several theories have been advanced to explain the decline.

The Little Ice Age of this period would have made travel between Greenland and Europe, as well as farming, more difficult; although fishing and seal hunting provided a healthy diet, there was more prestige in cattle farming, and there was increased availability of farms in Scandinavian countries depopulated by famine and plague epidemics. In addition, Greenlandic ivory may have been supplanted in European markets by cheaper ivory from Africa.[11] Despite the loss of contact with the Greenlanders, the Norwegian-Danish crown continued to consider Greenland a possession.

Not knowing whether the old Norse civilization remained in Greenland or not—and worried that if it did, it would still be Catholic 200 years after the Scandinavian homelands had experienced the Reformation—a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by the Dano-Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland in 1721. Though this expedition found no surviving Europeans, it marked the beginning of Denmark's re-assertion of sovereignty over the island.

Vinland

Leif Erikson discovers North America
Christian Krogh (1893).

According to the Icelandic sagas—Eirik the Red's Saga,[12] Saga of the Greenlanders, plus chapters of the Hauksbók and the Flatey Book—the Norse started to explore lands to the west of Greenland only a few years after the Greenland settlements were established. In 985 while sailing from Iceland to Greenland with a migration fleet consisting of 400–700 settlers[8][13] and 25 other ships (14 of which completed the journey), a merchant named Bjarni Herjólfsson was blown off course, and after three days' sailing he sighted land west of the fleet. Bjarni was only interested in finding his father's farm, but he described his discovery to Leif Erikson who explored the area in more detail and planted a small settlement fifteen years later.[8]

The sagas describe three separate areas discovered during this exploration: Helluland, which means "land of the flat stones"; Markland, "the land of forests", definitely of interest to settlers in Greenland where there were few trees; and Vinland, "the land of wine", found somewhere south of Markland. It was in Vinland that the settlement described in the sagas was founded.

Three of Erik the Red's children visited the North American continent: his sons Leif and Thorvald, and their sister (or half-sister) Freydis. Thorvald died there.

Leif's winter camp

The Skálholt Map

Using the routes, landmarks, currents, rocks, and winds that Bjarni had described to him, Leif sailed some 1,800 miles to the west of the land, with a crew of 35—sailing the same knarr Bjarni had used to make the voyage. He described Helluland as "level and wooded, with broad white beaches wherever they went and a gently sloping shoreline."[8] Leif and others had wanted his father, Erik the Red, to lead this expedition and talked him into it. However, as Erik attempted to join his son Leif on the voyage towards these new lands, he fell off his horse as it slipped on the wet rocks near the shore; thus he was injured and stayed behind.[8]

Leif wintered in 1001, probably near Cape Bauld on the northern tip of Newfoundland, where one day his foster father Tyrker was found drunk, on what the saga describes as "wine-berries." Squashberries, gooseberries, and cranberries all grew wild in the area. There are varying explanations for Leif apparently describing fermented berries as "wine."

Leif spent another winter at "Leifsbúðir" without conflict, and sailed back to Brattahlíð in Greenland to assume filial duties to his father.

Thorvald's voyage (1004 AD)

In 1004, Leif's brother Thorvald Eiriksson sailed with a crew of 30 men to Vinland and spent the following winter at Leif's camp. In the spring, Thorvald attacked nine of the local people who were sleeping under three skin-covered canoes. The ninth victim escaped and soon came back to the Norse camp with a force. Thorvald was killed by an arrow that succeeded in passing through the barricade. Although brief hostilities ensued, the Norse explorers stayed another winter and left the following spring. Subsequently another of Leif's brothers, Thorstein, sailed to the New World to retrieve his dead brother's body, but he died before leaving Greenland.[8]

Summer in the Greenland coast circa year 1000 by Jens Erik Carl Rasmussen (1841–1893)

Karlsefni's expedition (1009 AD)

In 1009 Thorfinn Karlsefni, also known as "Thorfinn the Valiant", supplied three ships with livestock and 160 men and women[13] (although another source sets the number of settlers at 250). After a cruel winter, he headed south and landed at Straumfjord. He later moved to Straumsöy, possibly because the current was stronger there. A sign of peaceful relations between the indigenous peoples and the Norsemen is noted here. The two sides bartered with furs and gray squirrel skins for milk and red cloth, which the natives tied around their heads as a sort of headdress.

There are conflicting stories but one account states that a bull belonging to Karlsefni came storming out of the wood, so frightening the natives that they ran to their skin-boats and rowed away. They returned three days later, in force. The natives used catapults, hoisting "a large sphere on a pole; it was dark blue in color" and about the size of a sheep's belly,[14] which flew over the heads of the men and made an ugly din.[14]

The Norsemen retreated. Leif Erikson's half-sister Freydís Eiríksdóttir was pregnant and unable to keep up with the retreating Norsemen. She called out to them to stop fleeing from "such pitiful wretches", adding that if she had weapons, she could do better than that. Freydís seized the sword belonging to a man who had been killed by the natives. She pulled one of her breasts out of her bodice and struck it with the sword, frightening the natives, who fled.[14]

Pseudohistory

Purported runestones have been found in North America, most famously the Kensington Runestone. These are generally considered to be hoaxes or misinterpretations of Native American petroglyphs.[15]

There are many claims of Norse colonization in New England, none well-founded.

Monuments claimed to be Norse include:[16]

Horsford's Norumbega

The nineteenth-century Harvard chemist Eben Norton Horsford connected the Charles River Basin to places described in the Norse sagas and elsewhere, notably Norumbega.[17] He published several books on the topic and had plaques, monuments, and statues erected in honor of the Norse.[18] His work received little support from mainstream historians and archeologists at the time, and even less today.[19][20][21]

Duration of Norse contact

Settlements in continental North America aimed to exploit natural resources such as furs and in particular lumber, which was in short supply in Greenland.[22] It is unclear why the short-term settlements did not become permanent, though it was likely in part because of hostile relations with the indigenous peoples, referred to as Skrælings by the Norse.[23] Nevertheless, it appears that sporadic voyages to Markland for forages, timber, and trade with the locals could have lasted as long as 400 years.[24][25]

Evidence of continuing trips includes the Maine Penny, a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign (1067–1093) allegedly found in a Native American archaeological site in the U.S. state of Maine, suggesting an exchange between the Norse and the Native Americans late in or after the 11th century; and an entry in the Icelandic Annals from 1347 which refers to a small Greenlandic vessel with a crew of eighteen that arrived in Iceland while attempting to return to Greenland from Markland with a load of timber.[26]

Aftermath

For centuries it remained unclear whether the Icelandic stories represented real voyages by the Norse to North America. The sagas first gained serious historic respectability when, in 1837, the Danish antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn pointed out the possibility for a Norse settlement in, or voyages to, North America. North America, by the name Winland, first appeared in written sources in a work by Adam of Bremen from approximately 1075. The most important works about North America and the early Norse activities there, namely the Sagas of Icelanders, first reached written form only in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Evidence of Norse west of Greenland came in the 1960s when archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and her husband, outdoorsman and author Helge Ingstad, excavated a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. The location of the various lands described in the sagas remains unclear, however. Many historians identify Helluland with Baffin Island and Markland with Labrador. The location of Vinland poses a thornier question. Most believe that the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement represents the Vinland settlement described in the sagas; others argue that the sagas depict Vinland as warmer than Newfoundland and therefore lying farther south.

In 2012 Canadian researchers identified possible signs of Norse outposts in Nanook at Tanfield Valley on Baffin Island, as well as on Nunguvik, Willows Island and Avayalik.[27][28][29] Unusual fabric cordage found on Baffin Island in the 1980s and stored at the Canadian Museum of Civilization was identified in 1999 as possibly of Norse manufacture; that discovery led to more in-depth exploration of the Tanfield Valley archaeological site.

Archeological findings in 2015 at Point Rosee, on the southwest coast of Newfoundland, reveal evidence of the location being a bog iron-smelting site and therefore a possible second 10th century Viking settlement in Canada. The possible settlement was initially discovered through satellite imagery and magnetometer readings and archaeologists have begun excavating the area.[30][31]

The ancient Skálholt Map, made by an Icelandic teacher in 1570, depicts North America.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Pálsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland sagas: the Norse discovery of America. Penguin Classics. p. 28. ISBN 0-14-044154-9. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
  2. ↑ Fitzhugh, William W, ‘Vikings: The north Atlantic saga’, Anthronotes museum of natural history publication for education, available at www.anthropology.si.edu.
  3. ↑ Irwin, Constance; Strange Footprints on the Land; Harper&Row, New York, 1980; ISBN 0-06-022772-9
  4. ↑ Grove, Jonathan. 2009. "The place of Greenland in medieval Icelandic saga narrative", in Norse Greenland: Selected Papers of the Hvalsey Conference 2008, Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 2, 30–51
  5. ↑ He remained there making explorations for three years and decided to found a colony there (Anderson, Rasmus B. (February 18, 2004) [1906]. Hare, John Bruno, ed. "Norse voyages in the tenth and following centuries". The Norse Discovery of America. Retrieved 2008-08-27.).
  6. ↑ Reeves, Arthur Middleton; Anderson, Rasmus B. (1906). "Discovery and colonization of Greenland". Saga of Erik the Red. Retrieved 2008-08-27. The first winter he was at Eriksey, nearly in the middle of the eastern settlement; the spring after repaired he to Eriksfjord, and took up there his abode. He removed in summer to the western settlement, and gave to many places names. He was the second winter at Holm in Hrafnsgnipa, but the third summer went he to Iceland, and came with his ship into Breidafjord.
  7. ↑ Íslendingabók at Wikisource.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wernick, Robert; The Seafarers: The Vikings, (1979), 176 pages, Time-Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia: ISBN 0-8094-2709-5.
  9. ↑ Lynnerup, N. 2014: Endperiod Demographics of the Greenland Norse. Journal of the North Atlantic, 7, 18-24. DOI:10.3721/037.002.sp702
  10. 1 2 3 Wahlgren, Erik (1986). The Vikings and America. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-02109-0.
  11. ↑ Stockinger, Günther (10 January 2012). "Archaeologists Uncover Clues to Why Vikings Abandoned Greenland". Der Spiegel Online. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
  12. ↑ Sephton, J. (1880). "The Saga of Erik the Red". Icelandic Saga Database. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
  13. 1 2 Oxenstierna, Eric; The Norsemen (1965), 320 pages, New York Graphic Soc.: ISBN 1-122-21631-9
  14. 1 2 3 Magnusson, Magnus; Palsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland Sagas. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044154-3.
  15. ↑ Annette Kolodny, "Fictions of American Prehistory: Indians, Archeology, and National Origin Myths", American Literature 75:4:693–721, December 2003 full text at Project MUSE
  16. ↑ Christopher Klein, "Uncovering New England’s Viking connections", Boston Globe, November 23, 2013
  17. ↑ Robin Fleming (1995). "Picturesque History and the Medieval in Nineteenth-Century America". The American Historical Review. 100 (4): 1079–82. JSTOR 2168201.
  18. ↑ Eben Norton Horsford; Edward Henry Clement (1890). The discovery of the ancient city of Norumbega: A communication to the president and council of the American Geographical Society at their special session in Watertown, November 21, 1889. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 14. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
  19. ↑ "Did Leif Erikson once live in Cambridge, Massachusetts?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved 2009-02-10.
  20. ↑ Steven Williams, Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory, 1991.
  21. ↑ Gloria Polizzotti Greis VIKINGS on the CHARLES or The Strange Saga of Dighton Rock, Norumbega, and Rumford Double-Acting Baking Powder at the Wayback Machine (archived July 16, 2011). Needham Historical Society
  22. ↑ Diamond, Jared: Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed
  23. ↑ Murrin, John M; Johnson, Paul E; McPherson, James M; Gerstle, Gary (2008). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Compact. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-495-41101-7. Retrieved 2010-11-24.
  24. ↑ Schledermann, Peter. 1996. Voices in Stone. A Personal Journey into the Arctic Past. Komatik Series no. 5. Calgary: The Arctic Institute of North America and the University of Calgary.
  25. ↑ Sutherland, Patricia. 2000. “The Norse and Native Norse Americans”. In William W. Fitzhugh and Elisabeth I. Ward, eds., Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, 238-247. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution.
  26. ↑ "Markland and Helluland". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. pp. Archeology page and following. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
  27. ↑ Pringle, Heather (19 Oct 2012). "Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
  28. ↑ Pringle, Heather (November 2012). "Vikings and Native Americans". National Geographic. 221 (11). Retrieved 2013-01-28.
  29. ↑ The Nature of Things (22 Nov 2012). "The Norse: An Arctic Mystery". CBC Television. Retrieved 2013-01-29.
  30. ↑ Kean, Gary (April 2, 2016). "Update: Archaeologist thinks Codroy Valley may have once been visited by Vikings". The Western Star.
  31. ↑ Strauss, Mark (March 31, 2016). "Discovery Could Rewrite History of Vikings in New World". National Geographic.
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