Necromancy

Illustration portraying a scene from the Bible wherein the Witch of Endor uses a necromantic ritual to conjure the spirit of Samuel at the behest of Saul; from the frontispiece of Sadducismus Triumphatus (1681) by Joseph Glanvill.

Necromancy (/ˈnɛkrəˌmænsi, -roʊ-/^[1][2]) or nigromancy is a supposed practice of magic involving communication with the deceased – either by summoning their spirit as an apparition or raising them bodily – for the purpose of divination, imparting the means to foretell future events or discover hidden knowledge, to bring someone back from the dead, or to use the deceased as a weapon, as the term may sometimes be used in a more general sense to refer to black magic or witchcraft.^[3][4]

The word "necromancy" is adapted from Late Latin necromantia, itself borrowed from post-Classical Greek νεκρομαντεία (nekromanteía), a compound of Ancient Greek νεκρός (nekrós), "dead body", and μαντεία (manteía), "divination by means of"; this compound form was first used by Origen of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC.^[5] The Classical Greek term was ἡ νέκυια (nekyia), from the episode of the Odyssey in which Odysseus visits the realm of the dead and νεκρομαντεία in Hellenistic Greek, rendered as necromantīa in Latin, and as necromancy in 17th-century English.^[6]

Antiquity

Early necromancy was related to – and most likely evolved from – shamanism, which calls upon spirits such as the ghosts of ancestors. Classical necromancers addressed the dead in "a mixture of high-pitch squeaking and low droning", comparable to the trance-state mutterings of shamans.^[7] Necromancy was prevalent throughout Western antiquity with records of its practice in ancient Egypt, Babylonia, Greece and Rome. In his Geographica, Strabo refers to νεκρομαντία (nekromantia), or "diviners by the dead", as the foremost practitioners of divination among the people of Persia,^[8] and it is believed to have also been widespread among the peoples of Chaldea (particularly the Sabians, or "star-worshipers"), Etruria and Babylonia. The Babylonian necromancers were called manzazuu or sha'etemmu, and the spirits they raised were called etemmu.

The oldest literary account of necromancy is found in Homer’s Odyssey.^[9][10] Under the direction of Circe, a powerful sorceress, Odysseus travels to the underworld (katabasis) in order to gain insight about his impending voyage home by raising the spirits of the dead through the use of spells which Circe has taught him. He wishes to invoke and question the shade of Tiresias in particular; however, he is unable to summon the seer's spirit without the assistance of others. The Odyssey's passages contain many descriptive references to necromantic rituals: rites must be performed around a pit with fire during nocturnal hours, and Odysseus has to follow a specific recipe, which includes the blood of sacrificial animals, to concoct a libation for the ghosts to drink while he recites prayers to both the ghosts and gods of the underworld.^[11]

Practices such as these, varying from the mundane to the grotesque, were commonly associated with necromancy. Rituals could be quite elaborate, involving magic circles, wands, talismans, and incantations. The necromancer might also surround himself with morbid aspects of death, which often included wearing the deceased's clothing and consuming foods that symbolized lifelessness and decay such as unleavened black bread and unfermented grape juice. Some necromancers even went so far as to take part in the mutilation and consumption of corpses.^[12] These ceremonies could carry on for hours, days, or even weeks, leading up to the eventual summoning of spirits. Frequently they were performed in places of interment or other melancholy venues that suited specific guidelines of the necromancer. Additionally, necromancers preferred to summon the recently departed based on the premise that their revelations were spoken more clearly. This timeframe was usually limited to the twelve months following the death of the physical body; once this period elapsed, necromancers would evoke the deceased’s ghostly spirit instead.^[13]

While some cultures considered the knowledge of the dead to be unlimited, ancient Greeks and Romans believed that individual shades knew only certain things. The apparent value of their counsel may have been based on things they knew in life or knowledge they acquired after death. Ovid writes in his Metamorphoses of a marketplace in the underworld where the dead convene to exchange news and gossip.^[14][15]

There are also several references to necromancers – called "bone-conjurers" among Jews of the later Hellenistic period^[16] – in the Bible. The Book of Deuteronomy (18:9–12^[17]) explicitly warns the Israelites against engaging in the Canaanite practice of divination from the dead:

⁹When thou art come into the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee, thou shalt not learn to do according to the abominations of those nations. ¹⁰There shall not be found among you any one who maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire, or who useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, ¹¹or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer. ¹²For all who do these things are an abomination unto the LORD, and because of these abominations the LORD thy God doth drive them out from before thee (KJV).

Though Mosaic Law prescribed the death penalty to practitioners of necromancy (Leviticus 20:27^[18]), this warning was not always heeded. One of the foremost examples is when King Saul had the Witch of Endor invoke the Spirit of Samuel, a judge and prophet, from Sheol using a ritual conjuring pit (1 Samuel 28:3–25^[19]). However, the so-called witch was shocked at the presence of the real spirit of Samuel for in I Sam 28:12 it says, "when the woman saw Samuel, she cried out in a loud voice." Samuel questioned his reawakening asking, "Why hast thou disquieted me?" ^[20] Saul did not receive a death penalty (his being the highest authority in the land) but he did receive it from God himself as prophesied by Samuel during that conjuration.

Some Christian writers later rejected the idea that humans could bring back the spirits of the dead and interpreted such shades as disguised demons instead, thus conflating necromancy with demon summoning. Caesarius of Arles entreats his audience to put no stock in any demons or gods other than the Christian God, even if the working of spells appears to provide benefit. He states that demons only act with divine permission and are permitted by God to test Christian people. Caesarius does not condemn man here; he only states that the art of necromancy exists, although it is prohibited by the Bible.^[21] On the other hand, some Christians believe that necromancy is real (along with other facets of the occult "magic") but God has not suffered Christians to deal with those spirits (Deuteronomy 18:14).

Early and High Middle Ages

Many medieval writers believed that resurrection required the assistance of God. They saw the practice of divination as conjuring demons who took the appearance of spirits. The practice became known explicitly as "demonic magic", and the Catholic Church condemned it.^[22] Though the practitioners of necromancy were linked by many common threads, there is no evidence that these necromancers ever organized as a group.

Medieval necromancy is believed to be a synthesis of astral magic derived from Arabic influences and exorcism derived from Christian and Jewish teachings. Arabic influences are evident in rituals that involve moon phases, sun placement, day and time. Fumigation and the act of burying images are also found in both astral magic and necromancy. Christian and Jewish influences appear in the symbols and in the conjuration formulas used in summoning rituals.^[23]

Practitioners were often members of the Christian clergy, though some nonclerical practitioners are recorded. In some instances, mere apprentices or those ordained to lower orders dabbled in the practice. They were connected by a belief in the manipulation of spiritual beings – especially demons – and magical practices. These practitioners were almost always literate and well educated. Most possessed basic knowledge of exorcism and had access to texts of astrology and of demonology. Clerical training was informal and university-based education rare. Most were trained under apprenticeships and were expected to have a basic knowledge of Latin, ritual and doctrine. This education was not always linked to spiritual guidance and seminaries were almost non-existent. This situation allowed some aspiring clerics to combine Christian rites with occult practices despite its condemnation in Christian doctrine.^[24]

Medieval practitioners believed they could accomplish three things with necromancy: will manipulation, illusions, and knowledge:

• Will manipulation affects the mind and will of another person, animal, or spirit. Demons are summoned to cause various afflictions on others, "to drive them mad, to inflame them to love or hatred, to gain their favor, or to constrain them to do or not do some deed."^[25]
• Illusions involve reanimation of the dead or conjuring food, entertainment, or a mode of transportation.
• Knowledge is allegedly discovered when demons provide information about various things. This might involve identifying criminals, finding items, or revealing future events.

The act of performing medieval necromancy usually involved magic circles, conjurations, and sacrifices such as those shown in the Munich Manual of Demonic Magic:

• Circles were usually traced on the ground, though cloth and parchment were sometimes used. Various objects, shapes, symbols, and letters may be drawn or placed within that represent a mixture of Christian and occult ideas. Circles were believed to empower and protect what was contained within, including protecting the necromancer from the conjured demons.
• Conjuration is the method of communicating with the demons to have them enter the physical world. It usually employs the power of special words and stances to call out the demons and often incorporated the use of Christian prayers or biblical verses. These conjurations may be repeated in succession or repeated to different directions until the summoning is complete.
• Sacrifice was the payment for summoning; though it may involve the flesh of a human being or animal, it could sometimes be as simple as offering a certain object. Instructions for obtaining these items were usually specific. The time, location, and method of gathering items for sacrifice could also play an important role in the ritual.^[26]

The rare confessions of those accused of necromancy suggest that there was a range of spell casting and related magical experimentation. It is difficult to determine if these details were due to their practices, as opposed to the whims of their interrogators. John of Salisbury is one of the first examples related by Richard Kieckhefer, but as a Parisian ecclesiastical court record of 1323 shows, a "group who were plotting to invoke the demon Berich from inside a circle made from strips of cat skin" were obviously participating in what the Church would define as "necromancy".^[27]

Herbert Stanley Redgrove claims necromancy as one of three chief branches of medieval ceremonial magic, alongside black magic and white magic.^[28] This does not correspond to contemporary classifications, which often mistake "nigromancy" ("black-knowledge") with "necromancy" ("death-knowledge").

Late Middle Ages to Renaissance

Engraving of occultists John Dee and Edward Kelley "in the act of invoking the spirit of a deceased person"; from Astrology (1806) by Ebenezer Sibly.

In the wake of inconsistencies of judgment, necromancers and other practitioners of the magic arts were able to utilize spells featuring holy names with impunity, as any biblical references in such rituals could be construed as prayers rather than spells. As a consequence, the necromancy that appears in the Munich Manual is an evolution of these understandings. It has been suggested that the authors of the Manual knowingly designed the book to be in discord with ecclesiastical law. The main recipe employed throughout the Manual used the same religious language and names of power alongside demonic names. An understanding of the names of God derived from apocryphal texts and the Hebrew Torah required that the author of such rites have at least a casual familiarity with these sources.

Within the tales related in occult manuals are found connections with stories from other cultures' literary traditions. For instance, the ceremony for conjuring a horse closely relates to the Arabic One Thousand and One Nights and French romances; Chaucer’s The Squire's Tale also bears marked similarities.^[29] This becomes a parallel evolution of spells to foreign gods or demons that were once acceptable, and frames them into a new Christian context, albeit demonic and forbidden. As the material for these manuals was apparently derived from scholarly magical and religious texts from a variety of sources in many languages, the scholars who studied these texts likely manufactured their own aggregate sourcebook and manual with which to work spells or magic.

In the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, it is stated that "Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which gives birth to simple and natural things."^[30]

Modern era

In the present day, necromancy is more generally used as a term to describe the pretense of manipulation of death and the dead, often facilitated through the use of ritual magic or some other kind of occult ceremony. Contemporary séances, channeling and Spiritualism verge on necromancy when supposedly invoked spirits are asked to reveal future events or secret information. Necromancy may also be presented as sciomancy, a branch of theurgic magic.

Because of their themes of spirit contact, the long-running show Supernatural Chicago and the annual Harry Houdini séance, both of which are held at the Excalibur nightclub in Chicago, Illinois, dub their lead performer "Neil Tobin, Necromancer".^[31]

As to the practice of necromancy having endured in one form or another throughout the millennia, An Encyclopædia of Occultism states:

The art is of almost universal usage. Considerable difference of opinion exists among modern adepts as to the exact methods to be properly pursued in the necromantic art, and it must be borne in mind that necromancy, which in the Middle Ages was called sorcery, shades into modern spiritualistic practice. There is no doubt, however, that necromancy is the touch-stone of occultism, for if, after careful preparation the adept can carry through to a successful issue, the raising of the soul from the other world, he has proved the value of his art.^[32]

In popular culture

Fiction

• Many necromancers existed in the Necroscope series by Brian Lumley, including Vlad Dragosani and Janos Ferenczy.
• The final chapter of The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien mentions the White Council driving "the Necromancer", a guise of Sauron, from Dol Guldur, his stronghold in Mirkwood. He is not identified as Sauron in the book, but the identity is revealed in The Lord of the Rings.
• Anita Blake, main character of the Vampire Hunter series by Laurell K. Hamilton, is a necromancer, and there are numerous other mentions of necromancy.
• Chronicles of the Necromancer by Gail Z. Martin follows the story of the Spirit Mage Martris Drayke as he discovers his abilities as a Summoner, and tries to undo the damage caused by his elder brother, the Blood King, to the Seven Kingdoms. In the subsequent Fallen Kings Cycle, Tris battles the powers of a Dark Summoner from the distant land of Temnotta.
• The Old Kingdom series by Garth Nix is a cycle of novels centered around the practice of necromancy and its influence on the world of the living.
• The tenth Jonathan Aycliffe ghost story novel, The Silence of Ghosts uncovers a necromantic trade in bodies based in England's Lake District and Portugal.
• H. P. Lovecraft's novella The Case of Charles Dexter Ward features necromancy used to elicit knowledge from the remains (or "salts") of the deceased.
• Gordon R. Dickson's 1962 novel, Necromancer is part of a set of works known as the "Childe Cycle." In the story, mining engineer Paul Formaine comes into contact with the Chantry Guild with the hopes of recovery following a severe accident.
• Being ineffective as a means of "reuniting body and soul once death has occurred", necromancy in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling is generally disparaged as "a branch of magic that has never worked." However, practitioners of the Dark Arts contrive to produce "vile substitutions" such as the reanimated corpses known as Inferi.^[33]
• In the series Discworld by Terry Pratchett, the Unseen University, high college of wizardry, has a department for necromancers, although they call it Department of Post-Mortem communication, because Department of Necromancy sounded too much like evil magic. Members of this department are allowed by University statute a certain amount of minor evil acts, fitting with their status of necromancers, such as snide remarks and petty unpleasantness.
• In the Japanese manga series Shaman King by Hiroyuki Takei, the character Johann Faust VIII is a self-taught necromancer who takes part in the Shaman Fight in order to gain the ability to bring his wife back from the dead.
• A necromancer named Doll is featured amongst the core characters of ½ Prince, a series of Taiwanese novels by Yu Wo, later adapted into manhua format by Choi Hong Chong.
• Nico di Angelo, a demigod character appearing in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians and The Heroes of Olympus series by Rick Riordan, wields various necromantic powers owing to his paternity by Hades, Greek god of the underworld.
• Necromancy is prominent in the Skulduggery Pleasant series by Derek Landy.
• Chloe Saunders, main character of the Darkest Powers trilogy by Kelley Armstrong, is a genetically mutated necromancer.
• Kore wa Zombie Desu ka?, a series of Japanese light novels by Shinichi Kimura (which has also been adapted into manga and anime formats), features as its protagonist a zombie who was raised from the dead and befriended by a powerful necromancer.
• Appearing in a series of short stories and novels by Jonathan L. Howard, the character Johannes Cabal is "a necromancer of some little infamy" who sold his soul in order to gain the ability to commune with and raise the dead.
• The fourth installment of The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott is entitled The Necromancer. The series, however, employs this term in a broader sense as one of several that refer to characters who are practitioners of magic, though with a darker connotation than the others.
• In Beautiful Darkness by Kami Garcia and Margaret Stohl, Macon Ravenwood's aunt Twyla Valentin is a necromancer who gives Ethan Wate a brief encounter with his dead mother
• In the book series Skulduggery Pleasant series by Derek Landy, necromancy is a discipline of magic that is talked about heavily and one of the chosen disciplines of the main character Valkyrie Cain as well as other characters like Lord Vile.
• The title of William Gibson's 1984 science fiction novel Neuromancer is in part a reference to "necromancer".

Film and television

• In the fifth season episode "Just Rewards" of the WB series Angel, vampires Angel and Spike try to put a rogue necromancer named Magnus Hainsley out of commission. Their task is made much harder by the fact that they are both undead and therefore susceptible to Hainsley's power.
• Necromantic rituals conducted by the former occupant of a house are largely to blame for the supernatural forces that plague its current owners in the 2009 horror film The Haunting in Connecticut.
• The film Black Death is a gothic tale of horror dealing with disease, spirits, and necromancers.
• In the seventh season episode "Age of Innocence" of Vampire Diaries, Bonnie Bennett references Rick as being involved in and attempting necromancy.
• Ghost Whisperer's title character, Melinda Gordon (played by Jennifer Love Hewitt) could be considered a necromancer.
• In the second season episode "Children Shouldn't Play with Dead Things" of the CW series Supernatural, Sam and Dean Winchester are forced to intervene when the teaching assistant to a professor of Ancient Greek uses a necromantic ritual to bring the professor's daughter back to life after she dies in a car accident.
• In the fourth season episode "Lancelot du Lac" of the BBC series Merlin, Morgana uses necromancy to bring the knight Lancelot back from the dead in order to interfere with the pending marriage of King Arthur and Guinevere, thereby preventing Guinevere from becoming queen. Morgana herself wants to be the sole ruler of Camelot.
• In the fourth season of the HBO series True Blood, antagonist Marnie Stonebrook employs necromancy to cause herself to become possessed by the spirit of Antonia Gavilán de Logroño, a witch who was burned at the stake during the Spanish Inquisition. As she was dying, Antonia used her power to gain control over all nearby vampires and subsequently caused them to walk into the sunlight, killing themselves. Marnie desires the same ability to manipulate vampires like puppets.
• In the third season of the FX series American Horror Story: Coven, the character of Misty Day (Lily Rabe) is a necromancer who is persecuted by non-witches after bringing a bird back to life.
• In the Cartoon Network animated series The Venture Bros., Dr. Byron Orpheus is referred to as a "necromancer extraordinaire", although he has been shown to command a broad range of mystical powers. He belongs to the Order of the Triad, a team of occult practitioners, and regularly collaborates with Team Venture.
• In the 2016 movie, Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (film) Enoch O'Connor (Finlay MacMillan) is portrayed as a necromancer.

Games

• In some editions of Dungeons & Dragons, wizards can specialize in the school of necromancy, and clerics can select death as their sphere or domain. Both accordingly gain access to spells that not only focus on death, decay, and the undead, but also various forms of life force manipulation, enabling them to heal or cause injury, cure or inflict disease, and perform resurrection.^[34][35][36]
• Liliana Vess, an important character in the storyline of the trading card game Magic: The Gathering, is a necromancer, and other examples of necromancy appear in some of the card game's expansions, including Innistrad, Shards of Alara, and Khans of Tarkir.
• Necromancers are a specific type of magic user in the Palladium Fantasy and Rifts role-playing games from Palladium Books. They wield a number of powers over death and the dead, such as acquiring supernatural abilities by ingesting certain organs harvested from corpses and being able to merge severed limbs with their own bodies.^[37][38][39]
• The necromancer is a character class in the video game Diablo II, released by Blizzard Entertainment. It is also a character class in the video game AdventureQuest Worlds, released by Artix Entertainment.^[40] In Diablo II, they can animate the dead, inflict curses, and use life-draining attacks.^[41] It is also an Undead unit in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos,^[42] and there are named necromancers in World of Warcraft.
• In The Battle for Wesnoth, an open source turn-based strategy game, players may advance their units as practitioners of the dark arts to the level of necromancer, thereby gaining "the terrible ability to awaken the dead with false life", among other arcane powers.^[43]
• Necromancy can be learned by wizards of the School of Death in the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Wizard101 from KingsIsle Entertainment.^[44]
• The necromancer is available as a profession in the Guild Wars competitive online role-playing game series from NCsoft. Able to drain life energy from their enemies, they also specialize in raising undead minions and casting curses.^[45][46]
• In the Dungeon Management game, War for the Overworld, Necromancers appear as a unit which can raise Ghouls and Revenants.
• The character Quan Chi, from the fighting game series Mortal Kombat is a Necromancer
• The Character Lezard Valeth, from the video game series Valkyrie Profile, is a Necromancer.
• Necromancers can be found in the Bethesda video games 'The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind', 'The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion' and 'The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim' among others. Players cannot become a full necromancer, but they can use magic to raise the dead, summon souls, and create black soul gems that are used to trap human souls and harness their magical power.
• In Castlevania: Lords of Shadow, Necromancers are minions of the final Lord of Shadow, Zobek the Dark Lord of the Dead, Death himself. In the game, Necromancy is considered the most evil of all the schools of magic, and it can only be performed by Zobek and his followers. Unlike vampirism and lycanthropy, the powers necessary to control the energies of the deceased are not easily acquired. The Dark Lord only shares a small part of his power with his followers, who themselves must die in order to use the abilities given to them. Once dead, they become his thralls and their master is able to control them with his own considerable power. They appear as cloaked mummifed figures, who wield scythes and summon the undead to fight their enemies, though more powerful Necromancers can summon deadly Reapers, spirits that personify death. Three Necromancers are encountered by Gabriel Belmont during his quest to defeat the final Dark Lord, two as bosses, while the third impersonated the Dark Lord and raised the Dracolich Titan to fight Gabriel. In the sequel Castlevania: Lords of Shadow - Mirror of Fate, Gabriel's grandson, Simon Belmont, encounters a single Necromancer when he tries to obtain the Combat Cross belonging to Trevor, his father. The Necromancer was sent by Zobek to steal the Combat Cross, and was promised the return of his soul if he succeeded. After taking the Combat Cross, the Necromancer engages Simon in combat with his scythe. During the fight, he steals the Spirit of Belnades (the spirit of Simon's deceased mother), preventing Simon from using her healing and defensive powers. He is eventually defeated by Simon, who rips the Combat Cross from him.
• Necromancers are a playable faction in several of the Heroes of Might and Magic video games.
• In WWE Immortals, superstar The Undertaker is portrayed as a necromancer in an alternate universe.
• Necromancers are a player class available in the MMORPG PC game Everquest. Because of their allegiance to evil gods and their choice to practice dark magic, they are unwelcome in many cities across Everquest's fantasy world of Norrath and will be killed on sight by the NPC guards of these cities. Necromancers summon the undead to do their bidding and primarily cast spells that do damage over time.
• In the Gothic video game series, a mage named Xardas, one of the main NPC characters, is considered a necromancer due to choosing to study the summoning of undead and magical creatures in order to understand the nature of the magic barrier that surrounds the penal colony in the first game, and later to bring and end to the "War of the Gods" that is waged indirectly by orcs and humans. He acts as guide, advisor and indirect ally of the Nameless Hero protagonist and later to the Shepherd of Feshyr, the protagonist of the series' fourth game, Arcania: A Gothic Tale.
• Crypt of the NecroDancer
• In Ten Desires, Seiga Kaku has the ability to raise the dead, and uses the Jiangshi, Yoshika Miyako as a servant.

See also

Gastromancy Haitian Vodou List of occult terms       Macumba

Magick Necromanteion Ouija

Spirit possession Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible Yūrei Grógaldr

Notes

1. Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
2. "Necromancy". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
3. "necromancy". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. April 2008.
4. "necromancy". Oxford Dictionary of English (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. August 2010.
5. "necromancy, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (OED) (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. September 2003.
6. necyomancy, n., OED.
7. Luck, p. 12.
8. Strabo. Geography, Book XVI, Chapter 2, Section 39.
9. Johnson, p. 808.
10. Ruickbie, p. 24.
11. Homer. Odyssey, Book X, Lines 10–11, and Book XI.
12. Guiley, p. 215.
13. Lewis, p. 201.
14. Luck, p. 13.
15. Ovid. Metamorphoses, Book IV, Fable VII, Lines 440–464.
16. Luck, p. 57.
17. cf. Tanakh, Torah, Devarim 18:9–12.
18. cf. Tanakh, Torah, Vayikra 20:27.
19. cf. Tanakh, Nevi'im, Shmu'el Aleph 28:3–25.
20. William Godwin (1876). "Lives of the Necromancers". p. 18.
21. Kors & Peters, p. 48.
22. Kieckhefer 2011, p. 152.
23. Kieckhefer 2011, pp. 165–166.
24. Kieckhefer 2011, pp. 153–154.
25. Kieckhefer 2011, p. 158.
26. Kieckhefer 2011, pp. 159–162.
27. Kieckhefer 1998, p. 191.
28. Redgrove, p. 95.
29. Kieckhefer 1998, p. 43.
30. Leonardo. Notebooks, Volume 2, Chapter XIX, Section III:1213.
31. "Supernatural Chicago". Excalibur Nightclub. Retrieved April 18, 2013.
32. Spence, p. 286.
33. Rowling, pp. 79, 95, 98.
34. Cook, pp. 31, 33, 81.
35. Kurtz.
36. Tweet, Cook & Williams, pp. 32, 57, 174, 186, 192–196.
37. Siembieda, Long & Rosenstein, pp. 99–109.
38. Siembieda, Sumimoto & Cartier, pp. 83–107.
39. Siembieda, Wujcik, Cartier, Marciniszyn, Jacques & McCall, pp. 31–38.
40. "AdventureQuest Worlds—Classes: Necromancer". Artix Entertainment. Artix Entertainment. Retrieved January 5, 2014.
41. "Diablo II Expansion Set—Classes: Necromancers". Battle.net. Irvine, CA: Blizzard Entertainment. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
42. "Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne—Undead Units: Necromancer". Battle.net. Irvine, CA: Blizzard Entertainment. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
43. "Wesnoth Units Database: Necromancers". The Battle for Wesnoth. Gna!. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
44. "Death School". Wizard 101: Magic Schools. Austin, TX: KingsIsle Entertainment. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
45. "Gameplay—The Professions: Necromancer". Guild Wars. Seoul, South Korea: NCsoft. Retrieved January 7, 2012.
46. "The Game—Professions: Necromancer". Guild Wars 2. Seoul, South Korea: NCsoft. Retrieved April 27, 2012.

References

• Cook, D. (1989). Breault, M, ed. Player's Handbook. Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, 2nd Edition. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR. ISBN 978-0-88038-716-3.
• Guiley, R. E. (2006). "Necromancy". The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy. New York City, NY: Infobase Publishing. pp. 215–216. ISBN 978-0-8160-6048-1.
• Homer (1900) [c. 700 BCE]. The Odyssey. S. Butler, trans. London, UK: Longmans, Green & Co. OCLC 4862683.
• Johnson, M. M. (2004). "Necromancy". In Golden, R. M. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: The Western Tradition. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 808–809. ISBN 978-1-57607-243-1.
• Kieckhefer, R. (1998). Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01751-8.
• Kieckhefer, R. (2011). "Chapter 7: Necromancy in the Clerical Underworld". Magic in the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–175. ISBN 978-0-521-78576-1.
• Kors, A. C. & Peters, E., eds. (2001). Witchcraft in Europe 400–1700: A Documentary History (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1751-3.
• Kurtz, S. (1995). Forbeck, M, ed. The Complete Book of Necromancers. Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, 2nd Edition. Lake Geneva, WI: TSR. ISBN 978-0-7869-0106-7.
• Láng, B. (2010). Unlocked Books: Manuscripts of Learned Magic in the Medieval Libraries of Central Europe (New ed.). University Park, PA: Penn State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-03378-5.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1970) [1452–1519]. Richter, J. P, ed. The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. New York City, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22573-9.
• Lewis, J. R. (1999). Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-134-2.
• Luck, G. (2006). Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds—A Collection of Ancient Texts (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8345-3.
• Ovid (1717) [8 CE]. Garth, S, ed. Metamorphoses. J. Addison, W. Congreve, S. Croxall, J. Dryden, L. Eusden, J. Gay, A. Maynwaring & N. Tate, trans. London, UK: Jacob Tonson. OCLC 85877585.
• Redgrove, H. S. (1920). "Chapter 7: Ceremonial Magic in Theory and Practice". Bygone Beliefs: Being a Series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought. London, UK: W. Rider & Son. pp. 87–110. OCLC 2784604.
• Rowling, J. K. (2008). The Tales of Beedle the Bard. London, UK: Children's High Level Group. ISBN 978-0-545-12828-5.
• Ruickbie, L. (2004). Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History. London, UK: Robert Hale. ISBN 978-0-7090-7567-7.
• Siembieda, K.; Long, K. & Rosenstein, J. (1993). Rifts World Book Four: Africa. Taylor, MI: Palladium Books. ISBN 978-0-916211-58-5.
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• Spence, L. (1920). "Necromancy". An Encyclopædia of Occultism. London, UK: Routledge. pp. 286–290. OCLC 264589119.
• Strabo (1889–1893) [20 BCE – 23 CE]. Hamilton, H. C.; Falconer, W, eds. Geography. London, UK: George Bell & Sons. OCLC 693763975.
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Further reading

• Bacon, R. (1988) [c. 1260–1280]. MacDonald, M, ed. De Nigromancia. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Heptangle Books. ISBN 978-0-935214-10-9.
• Dubray, C. (1911). "Necromancy". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York City, NY: Robert Appleton Company.
• Godwin, W. (1834). Lives of the Necromancers. London, UK: F. J. Mason. OCLC 2657815.
• Halliday, W. R. (1913). "Chapter XI: Necromancy". Greek Divination: A Study of Its Methods and Principles. London, UK: Macmillan. pp. 235–245. OCLC 25019974.
• Monroe, A.; Edwards, T., eds. (2010) [1907]. Full Guide to Becoming a Real Wizard, Witch or Necromancer; from "The Scripts of Osari the Wise". New York City, NY: Library Tales/CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1-4499-6763-5.
• Ogden, D. (2001). Greek and Roman Necromancy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00904-9.
• Vulliaud, P. (1923). La Kabbale Juive: Histoire et Doctrine—Essai Critique (in French). Paris, France: Émile Nourry. OCLC 22318758.
• Wendell, L. (1991). The Necromantic Ritual Book. Opelousas, LA: Westgate Publications. ISBN 978-0-944087-03-9.

External links

• "Necromancer". TV Tropes. – Includes a list of works of modern popular media that feature necromancy.