Yi people

Yi
ꆈꌠ
彝族

Alternative names: Nuosu and dozens of others
Total population
(7,762,286[1])
Regions with significant populations
China: Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi Vietnam 4,541 (2009)[2] Thailand
Languages
Mandarin, Yi (minority)
Religion
Bimoism, minority of Buddhists and Christians
Related ethnic groups
Naxi, Qiang, Tibetan, possibly Tujia.

The Yi or Lolo people^[3] are an ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering 8 million, they are the seventh largest of the 55 ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions. As of 1999, there were 3,300 "Lô Lô" people living in Hà Giang, Cao Bằng, and Lào Cai provinces in northeastern Vietnam.

The Yi speak various Loloish languages, Sino-Tibetan languages closely related to Burmese. The prestige variety is Nuosu, which is written in the Yi script.

Location

Of the more than 8 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas, often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

The altitudinal differences of the Yi areas directly affect the climate and precipitation of these areas. These striking differences are the basis of the old saying that "The weather is different a few miles away" in the Yi area. This is the primary reason why the Yi in various areas are so different from one another in the ways they make a living.^[4]

Subgroups

Although different groups of Yi refer to themselves in different ways (including Nisu, Sani, Axi, Lolo, Acheh) and sometimes speak mutually unintelligible languages, they have been grouped into a single ethnicity by the Chinese, and the various local appellations can be classified into three groups:

• Ni (ꆀ). The appellations of Nuosu,^[5] Nasu, Nesu, Nisu, and other similar names are considered derivatives of the original autonym “ꆀ” (Nip) appended with the suffix -su, indicating "people". The name "Sani" is also a variety of this group. Further, it is widely believed that the Chinese names 夷 and 彝 (both pinyin: Yí) were derived from Ni.
• Lolo. The appellations of Lolo, Lolopu, etc. are related to the Yi people’s worship of the tiger, as “lo” in their dialects means "tiger". "Lo" is also the basis for the Chinese exonym Luóluó 猓猓, 倮倮, or 罗罗. The original character 猓, with the "dog radical" 犭and a guǒ 果 phonetic, was a graphic pejorative,^[6] comparable to the Chinese name guǒran 猓然 "a long-tailed ape". Languages reforms in the PRC replaced the 猓 character in Luóluó twice. First by Luó 倮, with the "human radical" 亻and the same phonetic, but that was a graphic variant for luǒ 裸 "naked"; and later by Luó 罗 "net for catching birds". Paul K. Benedict noted, "a leading Chinese linguist, has remarked that the name 'Lolo' is offensive only when written with the 'dog' radical.^[7]
• Other. This group includes various other appellations of different groups of Yi. Some of them may be of other ethnic groups but are recognised as Yi by the Chinese. The "Pu" may be relevant to an ancient ethnic group Pu (Chinese: 濮). In the legends of the northern Yi, the Yi people conquered Pu and its territory in the northeastern part of the modern Liangshan.

(Groups listed below are sorted by their broad linguistic classification and the general geographic area where they live. Within each section, larger groups are listed first.)

Classification	Approximate total population	Groups
Southern	1,082,120	Nisu, Southern Nasu, Muji, A Che, Southern Gaisu, Pula, Boka, Lesu, Chesu, Laowu, Alu, Azong, Xiuba
Southeastern	729,760	Poluo, Sani, Axi, Azhe, Southeastern Lolo, Jiasou, Puwa, Aluo, Awu, Digao, Meng, Xiqi, Ati, Daizhan, Asahei, Laba, Zuoke, Ani, Minglang, Long
Central	565,080	Lolopo, Dayao Lipo, Central Niesu, Enipu, Lopi, Popei
Eastern	1,456,270	Eastern Nasu, Panxian Nasu, Wusa Nasu, Shuixi Nosu, Wuding Lipo, Mangbu Nosu, Eastern Gepo, Naisu, Wumeng, Naluo, Samei, Sanie, Luowu, Guopu, Gese, Xiaohei Neisu, Dahei Neisu, Depo, Laka, Lagou, Aling, Tushu, Gouzou, Wopu, Eastern Samadu
Western	1,162,040	Mishaba Laluo, Western Lolo, Xiangtang, Xinping Lalu, Yangliu Lalu, Tusu, Gaiji, Jiantou Laluo, Xijima, Limi, Mili, Lawu, Qiangyi, Western Samadu, Western Gepo, Xuzhang Lalu, Eka, Western Gaisu, Suan, Pengzi
Northern	2,534,120	Shengba Nosu, Yinuo Nosu, Xiaoliangshan Nosu, Butuo Nosu, Suodi, Tianba Nosu, Bai Yi, Naruo, Naru, Talu, Mixisu, Liwu, Northern Awu, Tagu, Liude, Naza, Ta'er
Unclassified	55,490	Michi (Miqie), Jinghong Nasu, Apu, Muzi, Tanglang, Micha, Ayizi, Guaigun

History

A Yi woman in traditional dress

Some scholars believe that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into the Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.

They practice a form of animism, led by a shaman priest known as the Bimaw. They still retain a few ancient religious texts written in their unique pictographic script. Their religion also contains many elements of Daoism and Buddhism.

Many of the Yi in Liangshan and northwestern Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the nuohuo or Black Yi (nobles), qunuo or White Yi (commoners), and slaves. White Yi were free and could own property and slaves but were in a way tied to a lord. Other ethnic groups were held as slaves.^{[8][9][10][11][12][13]}

Legend

Most Yi believe they have the same ancestor, ꀉꁌꅋꃅ or ꀉꁌꐧꃅ (Axpu Ddutmu or Axpu Jjutmu). It is said that Apu Dumu married three wives and had six sons: each of the wives bore two sons. In the legend, the oldest two sons leading their tribes conquered other aborigines of Yunnan and began to reside in most territory of Yunnan. The youngest two sons led their tribes eastwards and were defeated by Han, before finally making western Guizhou their home and creating the largest quantity of Yi script documents. The other two sons led their tribes across the Jinsha River and dwelled in Liangshan. This group had close intermarriage with the local ꁍ (Pup).

Known history

Most Yi live in Liangshan, Chuxiong, and Honghe. At the Lizhou archaeological site (Chinese: 礼州遗址) near Xichang of Liangshan, dating to 3,000 years ago, many artifacts of the Neolithic Age have been discovered. Although no evidence proves that these ancient cultures of stone age have direct correlation with modern Yi people, their descendants, local bronze culture, may have had some influence on Yi people, as the ancestors of Yi people had frequent contact and intermarriage with local tribes, such as Dian (Chinese: 滇), Qiong (Chinese: 邛) and Zuo (Chinese: 笮), during their southwards migration from north eastern edge of Tibetan Plateau. Today, the Yi people still call the city of Xichang as ꀒꎂ (Op Rro). In spite of the affix “or-”, the root “dro” is believed by some scholars as related to the tribe Qiong (Chinese: 邛) as the pronunciation is quite close to the ancient pronunciation of Chinese character 邛.

During the Han dynasty, the central sovereign of China conquered the valley of Anning River, which is a tributary of Yalong River, and founded a county there named Qiongdu (Chinese: 邛都). The site is Xichang of present-day and from that time onwards, Xichang has become the bridge of Chengdu and Kunming across Yi area. Since Han dynasty, Yi people have been involved in the history of China. In the north dialect of modern Yi language, Chinese Han is still called ꉌꈲ (Hxie mgat), which is related to the Chinese word 汉家 (pinyin: Hànjiā), which means household of Han.

After the Han dynasty, the Shu of the Three Kingdoms conducted several wars against the ancestors of Yi under the lead of Zhuge Liang. They defeated the king of Yi, ꂽꉼ (Mot Hop; Chinese: 孟获) and expanded their conquered territory in Yi area. After that, the Jin Dynasty succeed Shu as the suzerainty of Yi area but with weak control.

After the Jin dynasty, central China entered the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties with frequent wars against the invading nomads from the north and lost its control of Yi and Yi area.

Although the Sui dynasty reunited China, it did not retrieve control of Yi but had close communications with Han residential spots scattered within Yi area (most along Anning River). After the Sui dynasty's mere 37 years, the situation continued in Tang dynasty. During Sui and Tang dynasty, the local aborigines of present-day Yunnan and Liangshan were distinguished by Chinese Han as Wuman (Chinese: 乌蛮, meaning black barbarian) and Baiman (Chinese: 白蛮, meaning white barbarian). Some scholars believe that Wuman is the ancestor of modern Yi while Baiman is the ancestor of modern Bai people (Chinese: 白族) of Yunnan.

The Wuman and Baiman people founded six independent cities on Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. The cities were known as zhao (Chinese: 诏) in Chinese texts, meaning 'city chieftain'. In 649 the king Xinuluo (Chinese: 细奴逻) of the Mengshe Zhao (Chinese: 蒙舍诏) extended his city's territory into a kingdom that assumed the name Great Meng (Chinese: 大蒙国). Great Meng was near Erhai Lake. Yi people believe the capital of the Great Meng was located in the area of nowaday Weishan county. In 737 with the support of the Tang dynasty of China, King Piluoge (Chinese: 皮罗阁) of the Great Meng united the six cities (zhao) in succession, establishing a new kingdom. As the Great Meng was the most southern of the six, the Tang dynasty recorded the united Great Meng as Nanzhao (Chinese: 南诏), which means the southern city. Although academic arguments exist (see Controversy of Nanzhao), there is a popular view that the royal family of Nanzhao were Yi people and ministers were Bai people. In the Weishan county of today, the saga of King Piluoge is still widely told.

Tibet also noted the spring of Nanzhao, which in Tibetan is called Jang. Although Tibet had maintained suzerainty over Nanzhao for decades, Nanzhao finally turned to the Tang dynasty. At the era of King Geluofeng (Chinese 阁罗凤), who was the son of King Piluoge, the Tang dynasty performed three expeditions against Nanzhao to conquer it, but all failed.

Nanzhao existed for 165 years until A.D. 902. After 35 years of tangled warfare, Duan Siping (Chinese 段思平) of the Bai birth founded the Kingdom of Dali, succeeding the territory of Nanzhao. Most Yi of that time were under the ruling of Dali. Dali’s sovereign existed for 316 years coterminous with the Song dynasty of central China, until it was conquered by Kublai Khan. During the era of Dali, Yi people lived in the territory of Dali but had little communication with the royalty of Dali.

Kublai Khan included Dali in his domain, grouping it with Tibet. The Yuan emperors remained firmly in control of the Yi people and the area they inhabited as part of Kublai Khan's Yunnan Xingsheng (Chinese: 云南行省) at current Yunnan, Guizhou and part of Sichuan. In order to enhance its sovereign over the area, the Yuan dynasty set up a dominion for Yi, Luoluo Xuanweisi (Chinese: 罗罗宣慰司), the name of which means local appeasement government for Lolos. Although technically under the rule of the Yuan emperor, the Yi still had autonomy during the Yuan dynasty. The gulf between aristocrats and the common people increased during this time.

During the Ming dynasty the Chinese emperor expedited its cultural assimilation policy in southwestern China, spreading the policy of Gai Tu Gui Liu (Chinese: 改土归流). The governing power of many Yi feudal lords had previously been expropriated by the successors of officials assigned by the central government. With the progress of Gai Tu Gui Liu, the Yi area was dismembered into many communities both large and small, and it was difficult for the communities to communicate with each other as there were often Han-ruled areas between them.

The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty defeated Wu Sangui and took over the land of Yunnan and established a provincial government there. When Ortai became the Viceroy of Yunnan and Guizhou during the era of Yongzheng Emperor, the policy of Gai Tu Gui Liu and cultural assimilation against Yi were strengthened. Under these policies, Yi who lived near Kunming were forced to abandon their convention of traditional cremation and adopt burial, a policy which triggered rebellions among the Yi. The Qing dynasty suppressed these rebellions.

After the Second Opium War (1856–1860), many Christian missionaries from France and Great Britain visited the area in which the Yi lived. Although some missionaries believed that Yi of some areas such as Liangshan were not under the ruling of Qing dynasty and should be independent, most aristocrats insisted that Yi was a part of China despite their resentment against Qing rule.

Long Yun, a Yi, was the military governor of Yunnan, during the Republic of China rule on mainland China.

The Fourth Front Army of the CCP encountered the Yi people during the Long March, and many Yi joined the communist forces.^[14]

Much like their Tibetan neighbors, the Yi, specifically the Lolo, actively resisted the Communist occupation of their homeland. This manifested in a large scale armed revolt against the Communist Chinese in 1955, leading to thousands of losses on the Chinese side before the revolt was finally put down. In retribution, the Communist forces staged mass executions in which Lolo men, women, and children were bayoneted and shot. The true scale of these reprisals remains a mystery.^[15]

After the establishment of the PRC, several Yi autonomous administrative districts of prefecture or county level were set up in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou. With the development of automotive traffic and telecommunications, the communications among different Yi areas have been increasing sharply.

Language

The Chinese government recognizes six mutually unintelligible Yi languages, from various branches of the Loloish family:^[16]

Northern Yi (Nuosu 诺苏), Western Yi (Lalo 腊罗), Central Yi (Lolopo 倮倮泼), Southern Yi (Nisu 尼苏), Southeastern Yi (Sani 撒尼), Eastern Yi (Nasu 纳苏).

Northern Yi is the largest with some two million speakers, and is the basis of the literary language. There are also ethnically Yi languages of Vietnam which use the Yi script, such as Mantsi.

Many Yi in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know Standard Chinese, and code-switching between Yi and Chinese is common.

Distribution

By county

County-level distribution of the Yi 2000 census

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)

county/city	Yi %	Yi	Total
Longlingezu autonomous county	1.03	3,563	347,462
Sichuan province	2.58	2,122,389	82,348,296
Panzhihua city	10.11	110,326	1,091,657
Dong district	1.25	3,945	315,707
Xi district	1.84	3,148	170,862
Renhe district	19.06	38,907	204,170
Miyi county	13.21	27,381	207,300
Yanbian county	19.08	36,945	193,618
Leshan city	3.53	117,355	3,324,139
Jinkouhe district	10.15	5,373	52,916
Ebian Yi autonomous county	30.65	43,269	141,166
Mabian Yi autonomous county	39.15	66,723	170,425
Pingshan county	2.00	5,004	250,620
Yaan city	2.04	31,013	1,522,845
Hanyuan county	4.51	15,686	347,471
Shimian county	11.17	13,769	123,261
Ganzi Tibetan autonomous prefecture	2.56	22,946	897,239
Luding county	4.40	3,424	77,855
Jiulong county	37.01	18,806	50,816
Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture	44.43	1,813,683	4,081,697
Xichang city	16.48	101,369	615,212
Muli Tibetan autonomous county	27.71	34,489	124,462
Yanyuan county	47.67	149,568	313,765
Dechang county	23.18	43,810	188,980
Huili county	17.33	75,064	433,185
Huidong county	6.91	24,279	351,310
Ningnan county	21.85	37,134	169,962
Puge county	76.55	106,521	139,156
Butuo county	95.44	132,285	138,604
Jinyang county	78.42	109,813	140,028
Zhaojue county	96.75	200,951	207,712
Xide county	85.74	118,048	137,676
Mianning county	33.39	108,289	324,332
Yuexi county	72.54	172,505	237,800
Ganluo county	68.66	120,445	175,426
Meigu county	97.81	172,356	176,214
Leibo county	51.36	106,757	207,873
Guizhou province	2.39	843,554	35,247,695
Baiyun district	1.04	1,961	187,695
Qingzhen city	1.65	7,761	471,305
Liupanshui city	9.56	262,308	2,744,085
Zhongshan district	5.64	25,549	453,293
Liuzhite district	11.32	61,319	541,762
Shuicheng county	11.70	79,339	678,228
Pan county	8.97	96,101	1,070,802
Qianxi'nan Bouyei Miao autonomous prefecture	2.05	58,766	2,864,920
Xingyi city	2.02	14,521	719,605
Xingren county	2.44	10,372	425,091
Puan county	2.66	6,905	259,881
Qinglong county	6.76	17,436	258,031
Anlong county	2.28	9,094	399,384
Bijie prefecture	7.41	468,800	6,327,471
Bijie city	4.26	48,094	1,128,230
Dafang county	10.84	92,295	851,729
Qianxi county	8.67	60,420	697,075
Jinsha county	4.17	20,696	496,063
Zhijin county	3.81	31,420	825,350
Nayong county	5.72	37,840	661,772
Weining Yi Hui Miao autonomous county	9.06	95,629	1,056,009
Hezhang county	13.48	82,406	611,243
Yunnan province	11.11	4,705,658	42,360,089
Kunming city	6.65	384,531	5,781,294
Wuhua district	2.56	10,580	413,420
Panlong district	1.59	5,468	344,754
Guandu district	3.38	47,311	1,398,305
Xishan district	5.07	30,617	603,363
Dongchuan district	3.26	8,984	275,564
Chenggong county	1.22	2,202	180,685
Jinning county	7.64	20,443	267,739
Fumin county	7.44	10,422	140,046
Yiliang county	6.06	24,051	396,677
Shilin Yi autonomous county	32.49	72,779	223,978
Luquan Yi Miao autonomous county	22.45	96,388	429,355
Xundian Hui Yi autonomous county	8.91	42,934	481,721
Anning city	3.34	9,872	295,173
Qujing city	3.85	210,351	5,466,089
Qilin district	2.16	14,041	648,956
Malong county	3.41	6,326	185,766
Shizong county	6.21	21,718	349,770
Luoping county	6.44	33,159	515,211
Fuyuan county	7.16	47,076	657,474
Huize county	2.00	16,910	844,485
Zhanyi county	2.16	8,406	389,838
Xuanwei city	4.46	57,708	1,292,825
Yuxi city	19.32	400,412	2,073,005
Hongta district	9.02	36,905	409,044
Jiangchuan county	5.48	14,087	257,078
Chengjiang county	1.82	2,726	149,748
Tonghai county	5.82	16,017	275,063
Huaning county	21.29	41,844	196,519
Yimen county	26.75	45,362	169,581
Eshan Yi autonomous county	52.36	79,289	151,426
Xinping Yi Dai autonomous county	46.20	122,259	264,615
Yuanjiang Hani Yi Dai autonomous county	20.97	41,923	199,931
Zhaotong prefecture	3.23	148,521	4,592,388
Zhaotong city	2.58	18,758	727,959
Ludian county	2.51	8,686	345,740
Qiaojia county	2.86	13,183	461,034
Daguan county	1.98	4,667	235,802
Yongshan county	4.72	17,130	362,943
Zhenxiong county	5.78	63,463	1,097,093
Yiliang county	4.24	20,269	477,811
Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture	26.31	668,937	2,542,530
Chuxiong city	19.05	95,959	503,682
Shuangbai county	43.10	66,110	153,403
Mouding county	22.03	43,032	195,322
Nanhua county	36.07	82,223	227,970
Yaoan county	25.38	50,526	199,071
Dayao county	29.52	82,620	279,838
Yongren county	49.44	51,223	103,606
Yuanmou county	24.25	49,179	202,779
Wuding county	30.18	79,254	262,601
Lufeng county	16.61	68,811	414,258
Honghe Hani Yi autonomous prefecture	23.57	973,732	4,130,463
Gejiu city	20.27	91,902	453,311
Kaiyuan city	33.09	96,647	292,039
Mengzi county	29.38	99,917	340,051
Pingbian Miao autonomous county	18.51	27,596	149,088
Jianshui county	29.02	149,071	513,712
Shiping county	53.67	148,987	277,580
Mile county	30.92	153,235	495,642
Luxi county	7.99	29,202	365,585
Yuanyang county	24.01	87,137	362,950
Honghe county	14.23	38,086	267,627
Jinping Miao Yao Dai autonomous county	11.97	37,837	316,171
Lvchun county	4.92	9,894	201,256
Hekou Yao autonomous county	4.42	4,221	95,451
Wenshan Zhuang Miao autonomous prefecture	10.62	347,194	3,268,553
Wenshan county	17.28	74,255	429,639
Yanshan county	21.11	92,356	437,508
Xichou county	3.95	9,332	236,120
Malipo county	2.25	6,036	267,986
Maguan county	9.16	32,056	350,002
Qiubei county	18.05	78,327	434,009
Guangnan county	5.84	42,675	730,376
Funing county	3.17	12,157	382,913
Simao prefecture	16.58	411,120	2,480,346
Simao city	15.12	34,904	230,834
Puer Hani Yi autonomous county	19.45	36,589	188,106
Mojiang Hani autonomous county	9.23	32,812	355,364
Jingdong Yi autonomous county	39.92	140,556	352,089
Jinggu Dai Yi autonomous county	20.59	59,476	288,794
Zhenyuan Yi Hani Lahu autonomous county	27.28	56,119	205,709
Jiangcheng Hani Yi autonomous county	13.47	13,503	100,243
Menglian Dai Lahu Va autonomous county	2.40	4,999	208,593
Lancang Lahu autonomous county	6.74	31,255	464,016
Ximeng Va autonomous county	1.05	907	86,598
Xishuangbanna Dai autonomous prefecture	5.61	55,772	993,397
Jinghong city	5.56	24,673	443,672
Menghai county	2.28	7,175	314,068
Mengla county	10.15	23,924	235,657
Dali Bai autonomous prefecture	12.94	426,634	3,296,552
Dali city	2.95	15,385	521,169
Yangbi Yi autonomous county	46.09	48,565	105,380
Xiangyun county	7.26	31,733	437,371
Binchuan county	6.27	20,332	324,412
Midu county	8.35	24,791	296,860
Nanjian Yi autonomous county	47.24	99,159	209,887
Weishan Yi Hui autonomous county	34.07	100,879	296,124
Yongping county	26.56	47,391	178,438
Yunlong county	5.45	10,739	196,978
Eryuan county	3.00	9,443	315,003
Jianchuan county	2.88	4,771	165,900
Heqing county	5.40	13,446	249,030
Baoshan prefecture	3.23	75,877	2,348,315
Baoshan city	4.61	39,025	846,865
Shidian county	3.62	11,360	314,187
Longling county	1.83	4,758	260,097
Changning county	6.04	20,123	333,241
Lijiang prefecture	18.68	210,431	1,126,646
Lijiang Naxi autonomous county	2.42	8,871	366,705
Yongsheng county	12.43	46,703	375,769
Huaping county	8.26	12,808	154,968
Ninglang Yi autonomous county	61.97	142,049	229,204
Nujiang Lisu autonomous prefecture	1.99	9,805	491,824
Lushui county	2.28	3,915	171,974
Lanping Bai Pumi autonomous county	2.91	5,727	196,977
Diqing Tibetan autonomous prefecture	3.29	11,616	353,518
Zhongdian county	6.50	9,586	147,416
Weixi Lisu autonomous county	1.38	2,016	146,017
Lincang prefecture	15.77	367,880	2,332,570
Lincang county	5.43	15,478	285,163
Fengqing county	27.61	117,883	426,943
Yun county	37.96	158,099	416,507
Yongde county	8.68	29,521	339,918
Zhenkang county	17.19	31,334	182,258
Shuangjiang Lahu Va Blang Dai autonomous county	1.57	2,605	165,982
Gengma Dai Va autonomous county	3.57	11,193	313,220

Script

The Yi script was originally logosyllabic like Chinese, and dates to at least the 13th century. There were perhaps 10,000 characters, many of which were regional, since the script had never been standardized across the Yi peoples. A number of works of history, literature, and medicine, as well as genealogies of the ruling families, written in the Old Yi script are still in use, and there are Old Yi stone tablets and steles in the area.

Under the Communist government, the script was standardized as a syllabary. Syllabic Yi is widely used in books, newspapers, and street signs.

Culture

The Yi play a number of traditional musical instruments, including large plucked and bowed string instruments,^[17] as well as wind instruments called bawu (巴乌) and mabu (马布). The Yi also play the hulu sheng, though unlike other minority groups in Yunnan, the Yi do not play the hulu sheng for courtship or love songs (aiqing). The kouxian, a small four-pronged instrument similar to the Jew's harp, is another commonly found instrument among the Liangshan Yi. Kouxian songs are most often improvised and are supposed to reflect the mood of the player or the surrounding environment. Kouxian songs can also occasionally function in the aiqing form. Yi dance is perhaps the most commonly recognized form of musical performance, as it is often performed during publicly sponsored holidays and/or festival events.

Yi people's son's given name is patronymic, based on the last one or two syllable of father's name.

Photographer Colette Fu has spent time during 2008 and 2014 photographing the Yi community in Yunnan providence. Her series of pop-up books, titled We are Tiger Dragon People, includes images of a Yi Costome Festival.,^[18][19]

Religion

Bimoism

Bimoism is the ethnic religion of the Yi. Shaman-priests of this faith are known as bimo, which means "master of scriptures". Bimo officiate at births, funerals, weddings and holidays. They are often seen along the street consulting ancient scripts. The Yi worship deified ancestors similarly to the Chinese traditional religion practitioners, besides gods of local nature: fire, hills, trees, rocks, water, earth, sky, wind, and forests.

Ritual performances play a major role in daily life through healing, exorcism, asking for rain, cursing enemies, blessing, divination and analysis of one's relationship with the gods. They believe dragons protect villages against bad spirits, and demons cause diseases. However, the Yi dragon is neither similar to dragon in Western culture nor the same as that in Han culture. After someone dies they sacrifice a pig or sheep at the doorway to maintain relationship with the deceased spirit. The Yi believe that bad spirits cause illness, poor harvests and other misfortunes and inhabit all material things. The Yi also believe in multiple souls. At death, one soul remains to watch the grave while the other is eventually reincarnated into some living form.

The Nosu form of Bimoism (the religion of the Nosu or Nuosu subgroup of the Yi) distinguishes two sorts of shamans: the bimo and the suni, respectively hereditary and ordained priests. One can become bimo by patrilineal descent after a time of apprenticeship or formally acknowledging an old bimo as the teacher, a suni must be elected. Bimo are the most revered, to the point that the Nosu religion is also called "bimo religion". Bimo can read Yi scripts while suni cannot. Both can perform rituals, but only bimo can perform rituals linked to death. For most cases, suni only perform some exorcism to cure diseases. Generally, suni can only be from humble civil birth while bimo can be of both aristocratic and humble families.

In recent decades the Bimoist faith has undergone a revival, with large temples built in the early 2010s.^[20][21][22]

Other religions

In Yunnan, some of the Yi have adopted Buddhism as a result of exchanges with other predominantly Buddhist ethnic groups present in Yunnan, such as the Dai and the Tibetans. The most important god of Yi Buddhism is Mahākāla, a wrathful deity found in Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism. In the 20th century, some Yi people in China converted to Christianity, after the arrival of Gladstone Porteous in 1904 and, later, medical missionaries such as Alfred James Broomhall, Janet Broomhall, Ruth Dix and Joan Wales of the China Inland Mission. According to missionary organization OMF International, the exact number of Yi Christians is not known. In 1991 it was reported that there were as many as 150,000 Yi Christians in Yunnan Province, especially in Luquan County where there are more than 20 churches.^[23]

Gallery

• 
  A Yi woman of Butuo County of Sichuan Province
• 
  A Yi woman of Shiping County of Yunan Province
• 
  A Yi woman of Shilin County of Yunan Province
• 
  A Yi woman of Ninglang County of Yunan Province
• 
  A religious document in Yi script
• 
  A family tree document in Yi script
• 
  A Yi bracelet of central Yunnan
• 
  Cosmetic tools of Yi women in central Yunnan
• 
  A Yi musical instrument - bamboo harmonica
• 
  A Yi musical instrument - three-strings
• 
  A Yi musical instrument - Phambe
• 
  The Fire Festival in Eshan County

See also

• Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Hani people
• Bai people
• Yiminaspis, a prehistoric fish named in honor of the Yi.

Notes

1. China.org.cn - The Yi Ethnic Group
2. "The 2009 Vietnam Population and Housing Census: Completed Results". General Statistics Office of Vietnam: Central Population and Housing Census Steering Committee. June 2010. p. 135. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
3. Nuosu: ꆈꌠ [nɔ̄sū]; Chinese transcription: 诺苏 Nuòsū; Chinese: 彝族; pinyin: Yízú; Vietnamese: Lô Lô; Thai: โล-โล, Lo-Lo
4. "Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn". china.org.cn. Retrieved 2014-08-08.
5. Some scholars, however, argue that the Nuosu-series appellations are from the word "black" instead (ꆈ, Nuo).
6. Ramsey, Robert S. (1987). The Languages of China, p. 160. Princeton University Press.
7. Benedict, Paul K. (1987). "Autonyms: ought or ought not." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 10: 188. Italics in original.
8. Martin Schoenhals Intimate Exclusion: Race and Caste Turned Inside Out 2003- Page 26 "A non-slave-owning Black Yi, or a poor one, was nonetheless always higher in caste status than any White Yi, even a wealthy one or one owning slaves, and the Black Yi manifested this superiority by refusing to marry White Yi even if the latter ..."
9. Barbara A. West Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania 2009 - Page 910 "Yi society prior to the revolution in 1949 was divided into four ranked classes or castes: Nuohuo, or Black Yi; Qunuo, or White Yi; Ajia; and Xiaxi. The Nuohuo, or Black Yi, was the highest and smallest caste at just about 7 percent of the ..."
10. Yongming Zhou Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century - China: Nationalism, ... - 1999 - Page 150 "The black Yi (about 7 percent of the population) made up the aristocratic ruling class, and the white Yi held subordinate status. Within the white Yi, however, there were three subgroups: Qunuo, Anjia, and Jiaxi. Qunuo (about 50 percent of the ...")
11. S. Robert Ramsey The Languages of China 1987- Page 253 "The Black Yi looked down on farming, and all cultivation was traditionally done by White Yi and slaves. The Black Yi were responsible only for administration and military protection. Even so, however, they usually took great care to tend to their ..."
12. Stevan Harrell Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China 2001 - Page 174 "One village is for Black Yi, who speak Black Yi language. One village is for White Yi, who speak White Yi language. One place is for Red Yi, who speak Red Yi language. One village is for Gan Yi, who speak Gan Yi language. One village is for ..."
13. Daniel H. Bays Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present 1999- Page 144 "In the local hierarchy of ethnic groups, they ranked near the bottom, below the Chinese, the Yi aristocracy (Black Yi) and free men (White Yi), and the Hui, closer to the Yi slave caste."
14. Edgar, Snow. "Red Star Over China," 225. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1972.
15. Norbu, Jamyang. "Learn from the Wisdom of Chairman Mao." In Warriors of Tibet: The Story of Aten and the Khampas' Fight for the Freedom of their Country, 96-97. London, England: Wisdom Publications, 1986.
16. Andrew West, The Yi People and Language
17. "彝族人网-中国彝族文化网络博物馆，创建最早，规模最大的彝族文化门户网站-网站地图". yizuren.com. Retrieved 2014-08-08.
18. Fu, Colette (2013). Yi costume festival. Colette Fu. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
19. Fu, Colette; Wasserman, Krystyna (2016). Wanderer/Wonderer: Pop-Ups by Colette Fu : October 14, 2016-February 26, 2017. National Museum of Women in the Arts. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
20. 彝族六祖分支.
21. 彝族分支圣地，神奇乌蒙昭通.
22. 2012年中华彝族祭祖节祭祖大典在南诏土主庙举行.
23. "OMF International". Retrieved 2008-02-18.

References

• Cheng Xiamin. A Survey of the Demographic Problems of the Yi Nationality in the Greater and Lesser Liang Mountains. Social Sciences in China. 3: Autumn 1984, 207–231.
• Clements, Ronald. Point Me to the Skies: the amazing story of Joan Wales.(Monarch Publications, 2007), ISBN 978-0-8254-6157-6.
• Dessaint, Alain Y. Minorities of Southwest China: An Introduction to the Yi (Lolo) and Related Peoples. (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1980).
• Du Ruofu and Vip, Vincent F. Ethnic Groups in China. (Beijing: Science Press, 1993).
• Goullart, Peter. Princes of the Black Bone. (John Murray, London, 1959).
• Grimes, Barbara F. Ethnologue. (Dallas: Wycliffe Bible Translators, 1988).
• Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers. The History of the History of the Yi. Edited by Stevan Harrell. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995).
• Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China. Edited by Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley / Los Angeles / London: University of California Press, 2001), ISBN 0-520-21988-0.
• China's Minority Nationalities. Edited by Ma Yin. (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1994).
• Zhang Weiwen and Zeng Qingnan. In Search of China's Minorities. (Beijing: New World Press).
• Ritual for Expelling Ghosts: A religious Classic of the Yi nationality in Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan (The Taipei Ricci Institute, Nov. 1998), ISBN 957-9185-60-3.

Bibliography

• Benoît Vermander. L'enclos à moutons: un village nuosu du sud-ouest de la Chine. Paris: Les Indes savantes (2007).

Further reading

• Ollone, Henri d', vicomte (1912) In Forbidden China: the d'Ollone mission, 1906–1909, China--Tibet--Mongolia; translated from the French of the second edition by Bernard Miall. Chapters II-V & VII. London: T. Fisher Unwin

External links

• China.org.cn. "The Yi ethnic minority".
• Yu-Hsiu Lu. "The Dishi septet Traditional music and dance Documentation."
• Peoples.org. "Yi Peoples of China".
• Yizuren.com. "Huge string instruments of the Yi".
• Vermander, B. "The Yis of Liangshan Prefecture".
• Vermander, B. "Nuosu Religion: Rituals, Agents and Belief".
• Ayi Bamo. "The Bi-mox in The Liangshan Yi Society."
• Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China. Edited by Stevan Harrell.
• Map share of ethnic by county of China