Cannabinoid receptor type 2

"CNR2" redirects here. For the airport in Ontario, Canada, see Innerkip Aerodrome.
CNR2
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases CNR2, CB-2, CB2, CX5, Cannabinoid receptor type 2, cannabinoid receptor 2
External IDs MGI: 104650 HomoloGene: 1389 GeneCards: CNR2
Targeted by Drug
am-1241, hu-210, JWH-133, L-759,633, L-759,656, HU-243, win 55212-2, glyceryl 2-arachidonate, anandamide, dronabinol, 6-iodopravadoline, SR144528, TM-38837[1]
RNA expression pattern
More reference expression data
Orthologs
Species Human Mouse
Entrez

1269

12802

Ensembl

ENSG00000188822

ENSMUSG00000062585

UniProt

P34972

P47936

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_001841

NM_009924
NM_001305278

RefSeq (protein)

NP_001832.1

NP_001292207.1
NP_034054.3

Location (UCSC) Chr 1: 23.87 – 23.91 Mb Chr 4: 135.9 – 135.92 Mb
PubMed search [2] [3]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse

The cannabinoid receptor type 2, abbreviated as CB2, is a G protein-coupled receptor from the cannabinoid receptor family that in humans is encoded by the CNR2 gene.[4][5] It is closely related to the cannabinoid receptor type 1, which is largely responsible for the efficacy of endocannabinoid-mediated presynaptic-inhibition, the psychoactive properties of tetrahydrocannabinol, the active agent in cannabis, and other phytocannabinoids (natural cannabinoids).[4][6] The principal endogenous ligand for the CB2 receptor is 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).[5]

CB2 was cloned in 1993 by a research group from Cambridge looking for a second cannabinoid receptor that could explain the pharmacological properties of tetrahydrocannabinol.[4] The receptor was identified among cDNAs based on its similarity in amino-acid sequence to the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) receptor, discovered in 1990.[7] The discovery of this receptor helped provide a molecular explanation for the established effects of cannabinoids on the immune system.

Structure

The CB2 receptor is encoded by the CNR2 gene.[4][8] Approximately 360 amino acids comprise the human CB2 receptor, making it somewhat shorter than the 473-amino-acid-long CB1 receptor.[8]

As is commonly seen in G protein-coupled receptors, the CB2 receptor has seven transmembrane spanning domains,[9] a glycosylated N-terminus, and an intracellular C-terminus.[8] The C-terminus of CB2 receptors appears to play a critical role in the regulation of ligand-induced receptor desensitization and downregulation following repeated agonist application,[8] perhaps causing the receptor to become less responsive to particular ligands.

The human CB1 and the CB2 receptors possess approximately 44% amino acid similarity.[4] When only the transmembrane regions of the receptors are considered, however, the amino acid similarity between the two receptor subtypes is approximately 68%.[8] The amino acid sequence of the CB2 receptor is less highly conserved across human and rodent species as compared to the amino acid sequence of the CB1 receptor.[10] Based on computer modeling, ligand interactions with CB2 receptor residues S3.31 and F5.46 appears to determine differences between CB1 and CB2 receptor selectivity.[11] In CB2 receptors, lipophilic groups interact with the F5.46 residue, allowing them to form a hydrogen bond with the S3.31 residue.[11] These interactions induce a conformational change in the receptor structure, which triggers the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways. Further research is needed to determine the exact molecular mechanisms of signaling pathway activation.[11]

Mechanism

Like the CB1 receptors, CB2 receptors inhibit the activity of adenylyl cyclase through their Gi/Goα subunits.[12][13] Through their Gβγ subunits, CB2 receptors are also known to be coupled to the MAPK-ERK pathway,[12][13][14] a complex and highly conserved signal transduction pathway, which critically regulates a number of important cellular processes in both mature and developing tissues.[15] Activation of the MAPK-ERK pathway by CB2 receptor agonists acting through the Gβγ subunit ultimately results in changes in cell migration[16] as well as in an induction of the growth-related gene Zif268 (also known as Krox-24, NGFI-A, and egr-1).[14] The Zifi268 gene encodes a transcriptional regulator implicated in neuroplasticity and long term memory formation.[17]

At present, there are five recognized cannabinoids produced endogenously throughout the body: Arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide), 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether), virodhamine,[12] as well as the recently discovered N-arachidonoyl-dopamine (NADA).[18] Many of these ligands appear to exhibit properties of functional selectivity at the CB2 receptor: 2-AG preferentially activates the MAPK-ERK pathway, while noladin preferentially inhibits adenylyl cyclase.[12] Like noladin, the synthetic ligand CP-55,940 has also been shown to preferentially inhibit adenylyl cyclase in CB2 receptors.[12] Together, these results support the emerging concept of agonist-directed trafficking at the cannabinoid receptors.

Expression

Dispute

Originally it was thought that the CB2 receptor was only expressed in peripheral tissue while the CB1 receptor is the endogenous receptor on neurons. Recent work with immunohistochemical staining has shown expression within neurons. Subsequently, it was shown that CB2 knock out mice, produced the same immunohistochemical staining, indicating the presence of the CB2 receptor where none was expressed. This has created a long history of debate as to the Central Nervous System expression of the CB2 receptor. A new mouse model was described in 2014 that expresses a fluorescent protein whenever CB2 is expressed within a cell. This has the potential to resolve questions about the expression of CB2 receptors in various tissues.[19]

Immune system

Initial investigation of CB2 receptor expression patterns focused on the presence of CB2 receptors in the peripheral tissues of the immune system [9] and found CB2 receptor mRNA is found throughout tissues of the spleen, tonsils, and thymus gland.[9] Northern blot analysis further indicates the expression of the CNR2 gene in immune tissues,[9] where they are primarily responsible for mediating cytokine release.[20] These receptors were primarily localized on immune cells such as monocytes, macrophages, B-cells, and T-cells.[5][9][21][22][23]

Brain

Further investigation into the expression patterns of the CB2 receptors revealed that CB2 receptor gene transcripts are also expressed in the brain, though not as densely as the CB1 receptor and located on different cells.[24] Unlike the CB1 receptor, in the brain, CB2 receptors are found primarily on microglia.[20][25] The CB2 receptor is expressed in some neurons within the central nervous system (e.g.; the brainstem), but the expression is very low.[26][27] CB2Rs are expressed on some rat retinal cell types.[28] Functional CB2 receptors are expressed in neurons of the ventral tegmental area and the hippocampus, arguing for a widespread expression and functional relevance in the CNS and in particular in neuronal signal transmission.[29][30]

Gastrointestinal system

CB2 receptors are also found throughout the gastrointestinal system, where they modulate intestinal inflammatory response.[31][32] Thus, CB2 receptor is a potential therapeutic target for inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.[32][33] The role of endocannabinoids, as such, play an important role in inhibiting unnecessary immune action upon the natural gut flora. Dysfunction of this system, perhaps from excess FAAH activity, could result in IBD. CB2 activation may also have a role in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.[34] Cannabinoid receptor agonists reduce gut motility in IBS patients.[35]

Peripheral nervous system

Application of CB2-specific antagonists has found that these receptors are also involved in mediating analgesic effects in the peripheral nervous system. However, these receptors are not expressed by nociceptive sensory neurons, and at present are believed to exist on an undetermined, non-neuronal cell. Possible candidates include mast cells, known to facilitate the inflammatory response. Cannabinoid mediated inhibition of these responses may cause a decrease in the perception of noxious-stimuli.[7]

Function

Immune system

Primary research on the functioning of the CB2 receptor has focused on the receptor's effects on the immunological activity of leukocytes.[36] To be specific, this receptor has been implicated in a variety of modulatory functions, including immune suppression, induction of apoptosis, and induction of cell migration.[5] Through their inhibition of adenylyl cyclase via their Gi/Goα subunits, CB2 receptor agonists cause a reduction in the intracellular levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).[37][38] Although the exact role of the cAMP cascade in the regulation of immune responses is currently under debate, laboratories have previously demonstrated that inhibition of adenylyl cyclase by CB2 receptor agonists results in a reduction in the binding of transcription factor CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) to DNA.[36] This reduction causes changes in the expression of critical immunoregulatory genes[37] and ultimately suppression of immune function.[38]

Later studies examining the effect of synthetic cannabinoid agonist JWH-015 on CB2 receptors revealed that changes in cAMP levels result in the phosphorylation of leukocyte receptor tyrosine kinase at Tyr-505, leading to an inhibition of T cell receptor signaling. Thus, CB2 agonists may also be useful for treatment of inflammation and pain, and are currently being investigated, in particular for forms of pain that do not respond well to conventional treatments, such as neuropathic pain.[39] Consistent with these findings are studies that demonstrate increased CB2 receptor expression in the spinal cord, dorsal root ganglion, and activated microglia in the rodent neuropathic pain model, as well as on human heptocellular carcinoma tumor samples.[40]

CB2 receptors have also been implicated in the regulation of homing and retention of marginal zone B cells. A study using knock-out mice found that CB2 receptor is essential for the maintenance of both MZ B cells and their precursor T2-MZP, though not their development. Both B cells and their precursors lacking this receptor were found in reduced numbers, explained by the secondary finding that 2-AG signaling was demonstrated to induce proper B cell migration to the MZ. Without the receptor, there was an undesirable spike in the blood concentration of MZ B lineage cells and a significant reduction in the production of IgM. While the mechanism behind this process is not fully understood, the researchers suggested that this process may be due to the activation-dependent decrease in cAMP concentration, leading to reduced transcription of genes regulated by CREB, indirectly increasing TCR signaling and IL-2 production.[5] Together, these findings demonstrate that the endocannabinoid system may be exploited to enhance immunity to certain pathogens and autoimmune diseases.

Clinical applications

CB2 receptors may have possible therapeutic roles in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.[41][42] Specifically, the CB2 agonist JWH-015 was shown to induce macrophages to remove native beta-amyloid protein from frozen human tissues.[43] In patient's with Alzheimer's disease, beta-amyloid proteins form aggregates known as senile plaques, which disrupt neural functioning.[44]

Changes in endocannabinoid levels and/or CB2 receptor expressions have been reported in almost all diseases affecting humans,[45] ranging from cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, liver, kidney, neurodegenerative, psychiatric, bone, skin, autoimmune, lung disorders to pain and cancer. The prevalence of this trend suggests that modulating CB2 receptor activity by either selective CB2 receptor agonists or inverse agonists/antagonists depending on the disease and its progression holds unique therapeutic potential for these pathologies [45]

Modulation of cocaine reward

Researchers investigated the effects of CB2 agonists on cocaine self-administration in mice. Systemic administration of JWH-133 reduced the number of self-infusions of cocaine in mice, as well as reducing locomotor activity and the break point (maximum amount of level presses to obtain cocaine). Local injection of JWH-133 into the nucleus accumbens was found to produce the same effects as systemic administration. Systemic administration of JWH-133 also reduced basal and cocaine-induced elevations of extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. These findings were mimicked by another, structurally different CB2 agonist, GW-405,833, and were reversed by the administration of a CB2 antagonist, AM-630.

Ligands

Many selective ligands for the CB2 receptor are now available.[46]

Partial agonists

Unspecified efficacy agonists

Herbal

Inverse agonists

Binding affinities

CB1 affinity (Ki) Efficacy towards CB1 CB2 affinity (Ki) Efficacy towards CB2 Type References
Anandamide 78 nM Partial agonist 370 nM Partial agonist Endogenous
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine 250 nM Agonist 12000 nM ? Endogenous [47]
2-Arachidonoylglycerol 58.3 nM Full agonist 145 nM Full agonist Endogenous [47]
2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether 21 nM Full agonist 480 nM Full agonist Endogenous
Tetrahydrocannabinol 10 nM Partial agonist 24 nM Partial agonist Phytogenic [48][48]
EGCG 33.6 μM Agonist >50 μM ? Phytogenic [49]
EGC 35.7 μM Agonist >50 μM ? Phytogenic [49]
ECG 47.3 μM Agonist >50 μM ? Phytogenic [49]
N-alkylamide - - <100 nM Partial agonist Phytogenic [50][50]
β-Caryophyllene - - <200 nM Full agonist Phytogenic [50]
Falcarinol <1 μM Inverse agonist ? ? Phytogenic [50]
Rutamarin - - <10 μM ? Phytogenic [50]
3,3'-Diindolylmethane - - 1 μM Partial Agonist Phytogenic [50]
AM-1221 52.3 nM Agonist 0.28 nM Agonist Synthetic [51]
AM-1235 1.5 nM Agonist 20.4 nM Agonist Synthetic [52]
AM-2232 0.28 nM Agonist 1.48 nM Agonist Synthetic [52]
UR-144 150 nM Full agonist 1.8 nM Full agonist Synthetic [53]
JWH-007 9.0 nM Agonist 2.94 nM Agonist Synthetic [54]
JWH-015 383 nM Agonist 13.8 nM Agonist Synthetic [54]
JWH-018 9.00 ± 5.00 nM Full agonist 2.94 ± 2.65 nM Full agonist Synthetic [54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Drugs that physically interact with Cannabinoid receptor 2 view/edit references on wikidata".
  2. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:".
  3. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Munro S, Thomas KL, Abu-Shaar M (Sep 1993). "Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids". Nature. 365 (6441): 61–5. doi:10.1038/365061a0. PMID 7689702.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Basu S, Ray A, Dittel BN (Dec 2011). "Cannabinoid receptor 2 is critical for the homing and retention of marginal zone B lineage cells and for efficient T-independent immune responses". Journal of Immunology. 187 (11): 5720–32. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1102195. PMC 3226756Freely accessible. PMID 22048769.
  6. ↑ "Entrez Gene: CNR2 cannabinoid receptor 2 (macrophage)".
  7. 1 2 Elphick MR, Egertová M (Mar 2001). "The neurobiology and evolution of cannabinoid signalling". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 356 (1407): 381–408. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0787. PMC 1088434Freely accessible. PMID 11316486.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Cabral GA, Griffin-Thomas L (2009). "Emerging role of the cannabinoid receptor CB2 in immune regulation: therapeutic prospects for neuroinflammation". Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 11: e3. doi:10.1017/S1462399409000957. PMC 2768535Freely accessible. PMID 19152719.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Galiègue S, Mary S, Marchand J, Dussossoy D, Carrière D, Carayon P, Bouaboula M, Shire D, Le Fur G, Casellas P (Aug 1995). "Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations". European Journal of Biochemistry / FEBS. 232 (1): 54–61. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20780.x. PMID 7556170.
  10. ↑ Griffin G, Tao Q, Abood ME (Mar 2000). "Cloning and pharmacological characterization of the rat CB(2) cannabinoid receptor". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 292 (3): 886–94. PMID 10688601.
  11. 1 2 3 Tuccinardi T, Ferrarini PL, Manera C, Ortore G, Saccomanni G, Martinelli A (Feb 2006). "Cannabinoid CB2/CB1 selectivity. Receptor modeling and automated docking analysis". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 49 (3): 984–94. doi:10.1021/jm050875u. PMID 16451064.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Shoemaker JL, Ruckle MB, Mayeux PR, Prather PL (Nov 2005). "Agonist-directed trafficking of response by endocannabinoids acting at CB2 receptors". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 315 (2): 828–38. doi:10.1124/jpet.105.089474. PMID 16081674.
  13. 1 2 Demuth DG, Molleman A (Jan 2006). "Cannabinoid signalling". Life Sciences. 78 (6): 549–63. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.05.055. PMID 16109430.
  14. 1 2 Bouaboula M, Poinot-Chazel C, Marchand J, Canat X, Bourrié B, Rinaldi-Carmona M, Calandra B, Le Fur G, Casellas P (May 1996). "Signaling pathway associated with stimulation of CB2 peripheral cannabinoid receptor. Involvement of both mitogen-activated protein kinase and induction of Krox-24 expression". European Journal of Biochemistry / FEBS. 237 (3): 704–11. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1996.0704p.x. PMID 8647116.
  15. ↑ Shvartsman SY, Coppey M, Berezhkovskii AM (2009). "MAPK signaling in equations and embryos". Fly. 3 (1): 62–7. doi:10.4161/fly.3.1.7776. PMC 2712890Freely accessible. PMID 19182542.
  16. ↑ Klemke RL, Cai S, Giannini AL, Gallagher PJ, de Lanerolle P, Cheresh DA (Apr 1997). "Regulation of cell motility by mitogen-activated protein kinase". The Journal of Cell Biology. 137 (2): 481–92. doi:10.1083/jcb.137.2.481. PMC 2139771Freely accessible. PMID 9128257.
  17. ↑ Alberini CM (Jan 2009). "Transcription factors in long-term memory and synaptic plasticity". Physiological Reviews. 89 (1): 121–45. doi:10.1152/physrev.00017.2008. PMID 19126756.
  18. ↑ Bisogno T, Melck D, Gretskaya NM, Bezuglov VV, De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V (Nov 2000). "N-acyl-dopamines: novel synthetic CB(1) cannabinoid-receptor ligands and inhibitors of anandamide inactivation with cannabimimetic activity in vitro and in vivo". The Biochemical Journal. 351 (3): 817–24. doi:10.1042/bj3510817. PMC 1221424Freely accessible. PMID 11042139.
  19. ↑ Rogers, Nala. "Cannabinoid receptor with an 'identity crisis' gets a second look". Nature Medicine. 21 (9): 966–967. doi:10.1038/nm0915-966.
  20. 1 2 Pertwee RG (Apr 2006). "The pharmacology of cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: an overview". International Journal of Obesity. 30 Suppl 1: S13–8. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803272. PMID 16570099.
  21. ↑ Miller AM, Stella N (Jan 2008). "CB2 receptor-mediated migration of immune cells: it can go either way". British Journal of Pharmacology. 153 (2): 299–308. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707523. PMC 2219538Freely accessible. PMID 17982478.
  22. ↑ Ashton JC, Glass M (June 2007). "The cannabinoid CB2 receptor as a target for inflammation-dependent neurodegeneration". Current Neuropharmacology. 5 (2): 73–80. doi:10.2174/157015907780866884. PMC 2435344Freely accessible. PMID 18615177.
  23. ↑ Centonze D, Battistini L, Maccarrone M (2008). "The endocannabinoid system in peripheral lymphocytes as a mirror of neuroinflammatory diseases". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 14 (23): 2370–42. doi:10.2174/138161208785740018. PMID 18781987.
  24. ↑ Onaivi ES (2006). "Neuropsychobiological evidence for the functional presence and expression of cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the brain". Neuropsychobiology. 54 (4): 231–46. doi:10.1159/000100778. PMID 17356307.
  25. ↑ Cabral GA, Raborn ES, Griffin L, Dennis J, Marciano-Cabral F (Jan 2008). "CB2 receptors in the brain: role in central immune function". British Journal of Pharmacology. 153 (2): 240–51. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707584. PMC 2219530Freely accessible. PMID 18037916.
  26. ↑ Sickle, Marja D. Van; Duncan, Marnie; Kingsley, Philip J.; Mouihate, Abdeslam; Urbani, Paolo; Mackie, Ken; Stella, Nephi; Makriyannis, Alexandros; Piomelli, Daniele (2005-10-14). "Identification and Functional Characterization of Brainstem Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors". Science. 310 (5746): 329–332. doi:10.1126/science.1115740. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16224028.
  27. ↑ Gong, Jian-Ping; Onaivi, Emmanuel S.; Ishiguro, Hiroki; Liu, Qing-Rong; Tagliaferro, Patricia A.; Brusco, Alicia; Uhl, George R. (2006-02-03). "Cannabinoid CB2 receptors: Immunohistochemical localization in rat brain". Brain Research. 1071 (1): 10–23. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2005.11.035.
  28. ↑ López EM, Tagliaferro P, Onaivi ES, López-Costa JJ (May 2011). "Distribution of CB2 cannabinoid receptor in adult rat retina". Synapse. 65 (5): 388–92. doi:10.1002/syn.20856. PMID 20803619.
  29. ↑ Zhang HY, Gao M, Shen H, Bi GH, Yang HJ, Liu QR, Wu J, Gardner EL, Bonci A, Xi ZX (2016). "Expression of functional cannabinoid CB2 receptor in VTA dopamine neurons in rats". Addiction Biology. doi:10.1111/adb.12367. PMID 26833913.
  30. ↑ Stempel AV, Stumpf A, Zhang HY, Özdoğan T, Pannasch U, Theis AK, Otte DM, Wojtalla A, Rácz I, Ponomarenko A, Xi ZX, Zimmer A, Schmitz D (2016). "Cannabinoid Type 2 Receptors Mediate a Cell Type-Specific Plasticity in the Hippocampus". Neuron. 90 (4): 795–809. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.03.034. PMID 27133464.
  31. ↑ Izzo AA (Aug 2004). "Cannabinoids and intestinal motility: welcome to CB2 receptors". British Journal of Pharmacology. 142 (8): 1201–2. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705890. PMC 1575197Freely accessible. PMID 15277313.
  32. 1 2 Wright KL, Duncan M, Sharkey KA (Jan 2008). "Cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the gastrointestinal tract: a regulatory system in states of inflammation". British Journal of Pharmacology. 153 (2): 263–70. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707486. PMC 2219529Freely accessible. PMID 17906675.
  33. ↑ Capasso R, Borrelli F, Aviello G, Romano B, Scalisi C, Capasso F, Izzo AA (Jul 2008). "Cannabidiol, extracted from Cannabis sativa, selectively inhibits inflammatory hypermotility in mice". British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (5): 1001–8. doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.177. PMC 2451037Freely accessible. PMID 18469842.
  34. ↑ Storr MA, Yüce B, Andrews CN, Sharkey KA (Aug 2008). "The role of the endocannabinoid system in the pathophysiology and treatment of irritable bowel syndrome". Neurogastroenterology and Motility. 20 (8): 857–68. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2008.01175.x. PMID 18710476.
  35. ↑ Wong BS, Camilleri M, Busciglio I, Carlson P, Szarka LA, Burton D, Zinsmeister AR (Nov 2011). "Pharmacogenetic trial of a cannabinoid agonist shows reduced fasting colonic motility in patients with nonconstipated irritable bowel syndrome". Gastroenterology. 141 (5): 1638–47.e1–7. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.07.036. PMID 21803011.
  36. 1 2 Kaminski NE (Dec 1998). "Inhibition of the cAMP signaling cascade via cannabinoid receptors: a putative mechanism of immune modulation by cannabinoid compounds". Toxicology Letters. 102-103: 59–63. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(98)00284-7. PMID 10022233.
  37. 1 2 Herring AC, Koh WS, Kaminski NE (Apr 1998). "Inhibition of the cyclic AMP signaling cascade and nuclear factor binding to CRE and kappaB elements by cannabinol, a minimally CNS-active cannabinoid". Biochemical Pharmacology. 55 (7): 1013–23. doi:10.1016/S0006-2952(97)00630-8. PMID 9605425.
  38. 1 2 Kaminski NE (Oct 1996). "Immune regulation by cannabinoid compounds through the inhibition of the cyclic AMP signaling cascade and altered gene expression". Biochemical Pharmacology. 52 (8): 1133–40. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(96)00480-7. PMID 8937419.
  39. ↑ Cheng Y, Hitchcock SA (Jul 2007). "Targeting cannabinoid agonists for inflammatory and neuropathic pain". Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs. 16 (7): 951–65. doi:10.1517/13543784.16.7.951. PMID 17594182.
  40. ↑ Pertwee RG (Jan 2008). "The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin". British Journal of Pharmacology. 153 (2): 199–215. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707442. PMC 2219532Freely accessible. PMID 17828291.
  41. ↑ Benito C, Núñez E, Tolón RM, Carrier EJ, Rábano A, Hillard CJ, Romero J (Dec 2003). "Cannabinoid CB2 receptors and fatty acid amide hydrolase are selectively overexpressed in neuritic plaque-associated glia in Alzheimer's disease brains". The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (35): 11136–41. PMID 14657172.
  42. ↑ Fernández-Ruiz J, Pazos MR, García-Arencibia M, Sagredo O, Ramos JA (Apr 2008). "Role of CB2 receptors in neuroprotective effects of cannabinoids". Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 286 (1-2 Suppl 1): S91–6. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.01.001. PMID 18291574.
  43. ↑ Tolón RM, Núñez E, Pazos MR, Benito C, Castillo AI, Martínez-Orgado JA, Romero J (Aug 2009). "The activation of cannabinoid CB2 receptors stimulates in situ and in vitro beta-amyloid removal by human macrophages". Brain Research. 1283 (11): 148–54. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.098. PMID 19505450.
  44. ↑ Tiraboschi P, Hansen LA, Thal LJ, Corey-Bloom J (Jun 2004). "The importance of neuritic plaques and tangles to the development and evolution of AD". Neurology. 62 (11): 1984–9. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000129697.01779.0A. PMID 15184601.
  45. 1 2 Pacher P, Mechoulam R (Apr 2011). "Is lipid signaling through cannabinoid 2 receptors part of a protective system?". Progress in Lipid Research. 50 (2): 193–211. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2011.01.001. PMC 3062638Freely accessible. PMID 21295074.
  46. ↑ Marriott KS, Huffman JW (2008). "Recent advances in the development of selective ligands for the cannabinoid CB(2) receptor". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 8 (3): 187–204. doi:10.2174/156802608783498014. PMID 18289088.
  47. 1 2 Pertwee RG, Howlett AC, Abood ME, Alexander SP, Di Marzo V, Elphick MR, Greasley PJ, Hansen HS, Kunos G, Mackie K, Mechoulam R, Ross RA (Dec 2010). "International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXIX. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: beyond CB₁ and CB₂". Pharmacological Reviews. 62 (4): 588–631. doi:10.1124/pr.110.003004. PMID 21079038.
  48. 1 2 "PDSP Database - UNC". Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  49. 1 2 3 Korte G, Dreiseitel A, Schreier P, Oehme A, Locher S, Geiger S, Heilmann J, Sand PG (Jan 2010). "Tea catechins' affinity for human cannabinoid receptors". Phytomedicine. 17 (1): 19–22. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2009.10.001. PMID 19897346.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gertsch J, Pertwee RG, Di Marzo V (Jun 2010). "Phytocannabinoids beyond the Cannabis plant - do they exist?". British Journal of Pharmacology. 160 (3): 523–9. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00745.x. PMC 2931553Freely accessible. PMID 20590562.
  51. ↑ WO patent 200128557, Makriyannis A, Deng H, "Cannabimimetic indole derivatives", granted 2001-06-07
  52. 1 2 US patent 7241799, Makriyannis A, Deng H, "Cannabimimetic indole derivatives", granted 2007-07-10
  53. ↑ Frost JM, Dart MJ, Tietje KR, Garrison TR, Grayson GK, Daza AV, El-Kouhen OF, Yao BB, Hsieh GC, Pai M, Zhu CZ, Chandran P, Meyer MD (Jan 2010). "Indol-3-ylcycloalkyl ketones: effects of N1 substituted indole side chain variations on CB(2) cannabinoid receptor activity". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 53 (1): 295–315. doi:10.1021/jm901214q. PMID 19921781.
  54. 1 2 3 Aung MM, Griffin G, Huffman JW, Wu M, Keel C, Yang B, Showalter VM, Abood ME, Martin BR (Aug 2000). "Influence of the N-1 alkyl chain length of cannabimimetic indoles upon CB(1) and CB(2) receptor binding". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 60 (2): 133–40. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00152-0. PMID 10940540.

Further reading

  • Oddi S, Spagnuolo P, Bari M, D'Agostino A, Maccarrone M (2007). "Differential modulation of type 1 and type 2 cannabinoid receptors along the neuroimmune axis". International Review of Neurobiology. International Review of Neurobiology. 82: 327–37. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(07)82017-4. ISBN 978-0-12-373989-6. PMID 17678969. 
  • Galiègue S, Mary S, Marchand J, Dussossoy D, Carrière D, Carayon P, Bouaboula M, Shire D, Le Fur G, Casellas P (Aug 1995). "Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations". European Journal of Biochemistry / FEBS. 232 (1): 54–61. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20780.x. PMID 7556170. 
  • Munro S, Thomas KL, Abu-Shaar M (Sep 1993). "Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids". Nature. 365 (6441): 61–5. doi:10.1038/365061a0. PMID 7689702. 
  • Shire D, Calandra B, Rinaldi-Carmona M, Oustric D, Pessègue B, Bonnin-Cabanne O, Le Fur G, Caput D, Ferrara P (Jun 1996). "Molecular cloning, expression and function of the murine CB2 peripheral cannabinoid receptor". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1307 (2): 132–6. doi:10.1016/0167-4781(96)00047-4. PMID 8679694. 
  • Tao Q, McAllister SD, Andreassi J, Nowell KW, Cabral GA, Hurst DP, Bachtel K, Ekman MC, Reggio PH, Abood ME (Mar 1999). "Role of a conserved lysine residue in the peripheral cannabinoid receptor (CB2): evidence for subtype specificity". Molecular Pharmacology. 55 (3): 605–13. PMID 10051546. 
  • Nong L, Newton C, Friedman H, Klein TW (2002). "CB1 and CB2 receptor mRNA expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from various donor types". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 493: 229–33. doi:10.1007/0-306-47611-8_27. ISBN 0-306-46466-7. PMID 11727770.  |chapter= ignored (help)
  • Ho BY, Current L, Drewett JG (Jul 2002). "Role of intracellular loops of cannabinoid CB(1) receptor in functional interaction with G(alpha16)". FEBS Letters. 522 (1-3): 130–4. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(02)02917-4. PMID 12095632. 
  • Matias I, Pochard P, Orlando P, Salzet M, Pestel J, Di Marzo V (Aug 2002). "Presence and regulation of the endocannabinoid system in human dendritic cells". European Journal of Biochemistry / FEBS. 269 (15): 3771–8. doi:10.1046/j.1432-1033.2002.03078.x. PMID 12153574. 
  • Song ZH, Feng W (Nov 2002). "Absence of a conserved proline and presence of a conserved tyrosine in the CB2 cannabinoid receptor are crucial for its function". FEBS Letters. 531 (2): 290–4. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03537-8. PMID 12417328. 
  • Casanova ML, Blázquez C, Martínez-Palacio J, Villanueva C, Fernández-Aceñero MJ, Huffman JW, Jorcano JL, Guzmán M (Jan 2003). "Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 111 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1172/JCI16116. PMC 151833Freely accessible. PMID 12511587. 
  • Feng W, Song ZH (Apr 2003). "Effects of D3.49A, R3.50A, and A6.34E mutations on ligand binding and activation of the cannabinoid-2 (CB2) receptor". Biochemical Pharmacology. 65 (7): 1077–85. doi:10.1016/S0006-2952(03)00005-4. PMID 12663043. 
  • Kishimoto S, Gokoh M, Oka S, Muramatsu M, Kajiwara T, Waku K, Sugiura T (Jul 2003). "2-arachidonoylglycerol induces the migration of HL-60 cells differentiated into macrophage-like cells and human peripheral blood monocytes through the cannabinoid CB2 receptor-dependent mechanism". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (27): 24469–75. doi:10.1074/jbc.M301359200. PMID 12711605. 
  • Jorda MA, Rayman N, Valk P, De Wee E, Delwel R (May 2003). "Identification, characterization, and function of a novel oncogene: the peripheral cannabinoid receptor Cb2". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 996: 10–6. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03227.x. PMID 12799277. 
  • Rayman N, Lam KH, Laman JD, Simons PJ, Löwenberg B, Sonneveld P, Delwel R (Feb 2004). "Distinct expression profiles of the peripheral cannabinoid receptor in lymphoid tissues depending on receptor activation status". Journal of Immunology. 172 (4): 2111–7. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.172.4.2111. PMID 14764676. 
  • Rao GK, Zhang W, Kaminski NE (May 2004). "Cannabinoid receptor-mediated regulation of intracellular calcium by delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in resting T cells". Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 75 (5): 884–92. doi:10.1189/jlb.1203638. PMID 14966196. 
  • Alberich Jordà M, Rayman N, Tas M, Verbakel SE, Battista N, van Lom K, Löwenberg B, Maccarrone M, Delwel R (Jul 2004). "The peripheral cannabinoid receptor Cb2, frequently expressed on AML blasts, either induces a neutrophilic differentiation block or confers abnormal migration properties in a ligand-dependent manner". Blood. 104 (2): 526–34. doi:10.1182/blood-2003-12-4357. PMID 15039279. 
  • Núñez E, Benito C, Pazos MR, Barbachano A, Fajardo O, González S, Tolón RM, Romero J (Sep 2004). "Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are expressed by perivascular microglial cells in the human brain: an immunohistochemical study". Synapse. 53 (4): 208–13. doi:10.1002/syn.20050. PMID 15266552. 
  • Gokoh M, Kishimoto S, Oka S, Mori M, Waku K, Ishima Y, Sugiura T (Mar 2005). "2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, induces rapid actin polymerization in HL-60 cells differentiated into macrophage-like cells". The Biochemical Journal. 386 (Pt 3): 583–9. doi:10.1042/BJ20041163. PMC 1134878Freely accessible. PMID 15456404. 
  • Miller, A. M.; Stella, N. (2008). "CB2receptor-mediated migration of immune cells: it can go either way". British Journal of Pharmacology. 153 (2): 299–308. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707523. PMC 2219538Freely accessible. PMID 17982478. 
  • López EM, Tagliaferro P, Onaivi ES, López-Costa JJ (May 2011). "Distribution of CB2 cannabinoid receptor in adult rat retina". Synapse. 65 (5): 388–92. doi:10.1002/syn.20856. PMID 20803619. 

External links

This article incorporates text from the United States National Library of Medicine, which is in the public domain.

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/1/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.