Hindu calendar

A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72

Hindu calendar is a collective name for most of the luni-sidereal calendars and sidereal calendars traditionally used in Hinduism.

The Hindu calendars have undergone many changes in the process of regionalisation. Some of the more prominent national and regional Hindu calendars include the official Nepali calendar in the himalayan country Nepal and in India Punjabi calendar, Bengali calendar, Odia calendar, Malayalam calendar, Kannada panchanga, Tulu calendar, Tamil calendar, Vikrama Samvat and Shalivahana calendar in the Deccan states of Karnataka, Telangana, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.^[1]

The common feature of many regional Hindu calendars is that the names of the twelve months are the same (because the names are based in Sanskrit). The month which starts the year also varies from region to region.

The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar.

Most of the Hindu calendars derived from Gupta era astronomy as developed by Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira in the 5th to 6th century. These in turn were based in the astronomical tradition of Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa, which in the preceding centuries had been standardised in a number of (non-extant) works known as Sūrya Siddhānta. Regional diversification took place in the medieval period. The astronomical foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by Bhāskara II (12th century).

Differences and regional variations abound in these computations, but the following is a general overview of the Hindu lunisolar calendar.

The Indian national calendar or "Saka calendar" was introduced in 1957 based on the traditional Hindu calendars.

Day

In the Hindu calendar, the day is the time between the sunrises. There're five "concepts" (aṅgas). They are:

1. the phase(Tithi, ¹/₃₀ synodic month), about ⁶³/₆₄ days.
2. the weekday(Vāsara, vāra), such as ravi-vāra, somā-vāra, etc.
3. the mansion(Nakṣatra ¹/₂₇ condical month), about 25¹/₂₇ hours.
4. the Yoga (¹/₂₇ synodic month).
5. the half phase(Karaṇa, ¹/₆₀ synodic month)

Together 5 limbs or properties are labelled under as the pañcāṅgas (Sanskrit: pañca = five). An explanation of the terms follows.

Phase/Tithi

Phase/Tithi refers to ¹/₃₀ synodic month), which coresponding to 12° longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun. Phase/Tithi varys in from approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours. ^[2]

The phase decides the date of the day from the sunrise in the phase. If the there're two sunrise in a phase, the second day is an extra day. If there's no sunrise in a phase, the phase is a vancant date.

Weekday/Vāsara

Vāsara refers to the weekdays and the names of the week in many western cultures bear striking similarities with the Vāsara:

No.	Sanskrit name of the day (Day begins at sunrise)	Nepali name	Hindi name	Bhojpuri name	Punjabi name	Bengali name	Marathi name	Odia name	Kannada name	Telugu name	Tamil name	Malayalam name	Gujarati name	English & Latin names of the approximate day (Day begins at 00:00Hrs)	Celestial object
1	Ravivāsara रविवासर or Bhanu vāsara भानू वासर	Aaitabar आइतवार	Ravivār रविवार	Aitwār एतवार	Aitvār ਐਤਵਾਰ	Rôbibār রবিবার	Ravivār रविवार	Rabibāra ରବିବାର	Bhānuvāra ಭಾನುವಾರ	Ādivāraṁ ఆదివారం	Nyayiru ஞாயிறு	Njaayar ഞായർ	Ravivār રવિવાર	Sunday/dies Solis	Ravi, Aditya = Sun
2	Somavāsara सोमवासर	Sombar सोमवार	Somavār सोमवार	Somār सोमार	Somavār ਸੋਮਵਾਰ	Shombār সোমবার	Somavār सोमवार	Somabāra ସୋମବାର	Sōmavāra ಸೋಮವಾರ	Sōmavāraṁ సోమవారం	Thingal திங்கள்	Thinkal തിങ്കൾ	Sōmavār સોમવાર	Monday/dies Lunae	Soma = Moon
3	Maṅgalavāsara मंगलवासर	Mangalbar मंगलवार	Maṅgalavār मंगलवार	Mangar मंगर	Maṅgalavār ਮੰਗਲਵਾਰ	Môngôlbār মঙ্গলবার	Maṅgaḷavār मंगळवार	Maṅgaḷabāra ମଙ୍ଗଳବାର	Maṁgaḷavāra ಮಂಗಳವಾರ	Maṁgaḷavāraṁ మంగళవారం	Chevvai செவ்வாய்	Chovva ചൊവ്വ	Maṅgaḷavār મંગળવાર	Tuesday/dies Martis	Maṅgala = Mars
4	Budhavāsara बुधवासर	Budhabar बुधवार	Budhavāra बुधवार	Buddh बुध	Buddhavār ਬੁੱਧਵਾਰ	Budhbār বুধবার	Budhavār बुधवार	Budhabāra ବୁଧବାର	Budhavāra ಬುಧವಾರ	Budhavāraṁ బుధవారం	Arivan (Tamil tradition) or Buthan (religious tradition) அறிவன் (புதன் - பெருவாரியான பயன்பாட்டில்)	Budhan ബുധൻ	Budhavār બુધવાર	Wednesday/dies Mercurii	Budha = Mercury
5	Guruvāsara गुरुवासर or Brhaspati vāsara बृहस्पतिवासर	Bihibar बिहिवार	Guruvār गुरुवार	Bi'phey बियफे	Vīravār ਵੀਰਵਾਰ	Brihôshpôtibār বৃহস্পতিবার	Guruvār गुरुवार	Gurubāra ଗୁରୁବାର	Guruvāra ಗುರುವಾರ	Guruvāraṁ, Br̥haspativāraṁ గురువారం, బృహస్పతివారం, లక్ష్మీవారం	Vyazhan வியாழன்	Vyaazham വ്യാഴം	Guruvār ગુરુવાર	Thursday/dies Iovis	Deva-Guru Bṛhaspati = Jupiter
6	Śukravāsara शुक्रवासर	Sukrabar शुक्रवार	Śukravār शुक्रवार	Sukkar सुक्कर	Śukkaravār ਸ਼ੁੱਕਰਵਾਰ	Shukrôbār শুক্রবার	Śukravār शुक्रवार	Śukrabāra ଶୁକ୍ରବାର	Śukravāra ಶುಕ್ರವಾರ	Śukravāraṁ శుక్రవారం	Velli வெள்ளி்	Velli വെള്ളി	Śukravār શુક્રવાર	Friday/dies Veneris	Śukra = Venus
7	Śanivāsara शनिवासर	Sanibar शनिवार	Śanivār शनिवार	Sanichchar सनिच्चर	Śanīvār ਸ਼ਨੀਵਾਰ Chhanicchharavār ਛਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ	Shônibār শনিবার	Śanivār शनिवार	Śanibāra ଶନିବାର	Śanivāra ಶನಿವಾರ	Śanivāraṁ శనివారం	Kaari (Tamil tradition) or Sani (religious tradition) காரி (சனி - பெருவாரியான பயன்பாட்டில்)	Shani ശനി	Śanivār શનિવાર	Saturday/dies Saturnis	Śani = Saturn

The term -vāsara is often realised as vāra or vaar in Sanskrit-derived and influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.

Naksatra

The ecliptic is divided into 27 Nakṣatras, which are variously called lunar houses or asterisms. These reflect the moon's cycle against the fixed stars, 27 days and 7¾ hours, the fractional part being compensated for by an intercalary 28th nakṣatra titled Abhijit. Nakṣatra's computation appears to have been well known at the time of the Rigveda (2nd–1st millennium BC).

The ecliptic is divided into the nakṣatras eastwards starting from a reference point which is traditionally a point on the ecliptic directly opposite the star Spica called Citrā in Sanskrit. (Other slightly different definitions exist). It is called Meṣādi - "start of Aries"; this is when the equinox — where the ecliptic meets the equator — was in Aries (today it is in Pisces, 28 degrees before Aries starts). The difference between Meṣādi and the present equinox is known as Ayanāṃśa - denoting by how much of a fraction of degrees & minutes the ecliptic has progressed from its fixed (sidereal) position. Given the 25,800 year cycle for the precession of the equinoxes, the equinox was directly opposite Spica in AD 285, around the date of the Sūrya Siddhānta.^[3][4]

The nakṣatras with their corresponding regions of sky are given below, following Basham.^[5] As always, there are many versions with minor differences. The names on the right-hand column give roughly the correspondence of the nakṣatras to modern names of stars. Note that nakṣatras are (in this context) not just single stars but are segments on the ecliptic characterised by one or more stars. Hence more than one star is mentioned for each nakṣatra.

#	Sanskrit/Nepali/Hindi	Bengali name নক্ষত্র	Malayalam name മലയാളം	Tamil name தமிழ்	Telugu name తెలుగు	Kannada name ಕನ್ನಡ	Western star name
1	Aśvinī अश्विनी	Aśvinī অশ্বিনী	Ashvati അശ്വതി	Aswini அஸ்வினி	Aśvinī అశ్విని	Aśvinī ಅಶ್ವಿನಿ	β and γ Arietis
2	Bharanī भरणी	Bharanī ভরণী	Bharani ഭരണി	Barani பரணி	Bharani భరణి	Bharani ಭರಣಿ	35, 39, and 41 Arietis
3	Krttikā कृत्तिका	Krittikā কৃত্তিকা	Kārttika കാർത്തിക	Kārthikai கார்த்திகை	Krittika కృత్తిక	Kruthike ಕೃತಿಕೆ	Pleiades
4	Rohinī रोहिणी	Rohinī রোহিণী	Rōhini രോഹിണി	Rōhini ரோகிணி	Rōhini రోహిణి	Rōhini ರೋಹಿಣಿ	Aldebaran
5	Mrigaśirṣa मृगशिर्ष - this is also a month in Marathi calendar	Mrigaśiras মৃগশিরা	Makayiram മകയിരം	Mirugasīridam மிருகசீரிடம்	Mrigaśira మృగశిర	Mrigaśira ಮೃಗಶಿರ	λ, φ Orionis
6	Ārdrā आद्रा	Ārdrā আর্দ্রা	Ātira or Tiruvātira ആതിര (തിരുവാതിര)	Thiruvādhirai திருவாதிரை	Arudra ఆరుద్ర	Aridra ಆರಿದ್ರ	Betelgeuse
7	Punarvasu पुनर्वसु	Punarvasu পুনর্বসু	Punartam പുണർതം	Punarpoosam புனர்பூசம்	Punarvasu పునర్వసు	Punarvasu ಪುನರ್ವಸು	Castor and Pollux
8	Pushya पुष्य	Pushya পুষ্যা (তিষ্যা)	Pūyam പൂയം	Poosam பூசம்	Puṣyami పుష్యమి	Puṣya ಪುಷ್ಯ	γ, δ and θ Cancri
9	Aśleshā आश्ळेषा / आश्लेषा	Aśleshā অশ্লেষা	Āyilyam ആയില്യം	Ayilyam ஆயில்யம்	Aślesha ఆశ్లేష	Aślesha ಆಶ್ಲೇಷ	δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydrae
10	Maghā मघा	Maghā মঘা	Makam മകം	Magam மகம்	Makha or Magha మఖ or మాఘ	Makha ಮಖ	Regulus
11	Pūrva or Pūrva Phalguṇī पूर्व फाल्गुनी	Pūrva or Pūrva Phalguṇī পূর্ব ফল্গুনী	Pūram പൂരം	Pooram பூரம்	Pūrva Phalguṇī or Pubba పూర్వా ఫల్గుణి or పుబ్బ	Pubba ಪುಬ್ಬ	δ and θ Leonis
12	Uttara or Uttara Phalguṇī उत्तर फाल्गुनी	Uttara or Uttara Phalguṇī উত্তর ফল্গুনী	Utram ഉത്രം	Uthiram உத்திரம்	Uttara Phalguṇi or Uttara ఉత్తర ఫల్గుణి or ఉత్తర	Utthara ಉತ್ತರ	Denebola
13	Hasta हस्त	Hasta হস্তা	Attam അത്തം	Astham அஸ்தம்	Hasta హస్త	Hasta ಹಸ್ತ	α, β, γ, δ and ε Corvi
14	Citrā चित्रा14	Citrā চিত্রা	Chittira (Chitra) ചിത്തിര (ചിത്ര)	Chithirai சித்திரை	Chittā or Chitrā చిత్తా or చిత్రా	Chitta ಚಿತ್ತ	Spica
15	Svāti स्वाति	Svāti স্বাতী	Chōti ചോതി	Swathi சுவாதி	Svāti స్వాతి	Svāti ಸ್ವಾತಿ	Arcturus
16	Viśākha विशाखा	Viśākha বিশাখা	Vishākham വിശാഖം	Visakam விசாகம்	Viśākha విశాఖ	Viśākhe ವಿಶಾಖೆ	α, β, γ and ι Librae
17	Anurādhā अनुराधा	Anurādhā অনুরাধা	Anizham അനിഴം	Anusham அனுஷம்	Anurādhā అనూరాధ	Anurādhā ಅನುರಾಧ	β, δ and π Scorpionis
18	Jyeṣṭha ज्येष्ठा	Jyeṣṭha জ্যেষ্ঠা	Kēṭṭa (Trikkēṭṭa) കേട്ട (തൃക്കേട്ട)	Kettai கேட்டை	Jyeṣṭha జ్యేష్ఠ	Jyeṣṭha ಜ್ಯೇಷ್ಠ	α, σ, and τ Scorpionis
19	Mūla मूल/मूळ	Mūla মূলা	Mūlam മൂലം	Mūlam மூலம்	Mūla మూల	Mūla ಮೂಲ	ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ and ν Scorpionis
20	Pūrvāṣāḍha पूर्वाषाढा	Pūrvāṣāḍha পূর্বাষাঢ়া	Pūrāṭam പൂരാടം	Pūradam பூராடம்	Pūrvāṣāḍha పూర్వాషాఢ	Pūrvāṣāḍha ಪೂರ್ವಾಷಾಢ	δ and ε Sagittarii
21	Uttarāṣāḍha उत्तराषाढा	Uttarāṣāḍha উত্তরাষাঢ়া	Utrāṭam ഉത്രാടം	Uthirādam உத்திராடம்	Uttarāṣāḍha ఉత్తరాషాఢ	Uttarāṣāḍha ಉತ್ತರಾಷಾಢ	ζ and σ Sagittarii
22	Śravaṇa श्रवण	Śravaṇa শ্রবণা	Tiruvōnam ഓണം (തിരുവോണം)	Tiruvōnam திருவோணம்	Śravaṇaṁ శ్రవణం	Śravaṇa ಶ್ರವಣ	α, β and γ Aquilae
23	Śraviṣṭhā or Dhaniṣṭha श्रविष्ठा or धनिष्ठा	Śraviṣṭhā or Dhaniṣṭha ধনিষ্ঠা (শ্রবিষ্ঠা)	Aviṭṭam അവിട്ടം	Aviṭṭam அவிட்டம்	Dhaniṣṭha ధనిష్ఠ	Dhaniṣṭha ಧನಿಷ್ಠ	α to δ Delphinus
24	Śatabhiṣak or Śatatārakā शतभिषक् / शततारका	Śatabhiṣak or Śatatārakā শতভিষা	Chatayam ചതയം	Sadayam சதயம்	Śatabhiṣaṁ శతభిషం	Śatabhiṣa ಶತಭಿಷ	γ Aquarii
25	Pūrva Bhādrapadā पूर्वभाद्रपदा / पूर्वप्रोष्ठपदा	Pūrva Bhādrapadā পূর্ব ভাদ্রপদ	Pūruruṭṭāti പൂരുരുട്ടാതി	Pūraṭṭādhi பூரட்டாதி	Pūrvābhādra పూర్వాభాద్ర	Pūrvābhādra ಪೂರ್ವಾ ಭಾದ್ರ	α and β Pegasi
26	Uttara Bhādrapadā उत्तरभाद्रपदा / उत्तरप्रोष्ठपदा	Uttara Bhādrapadā উত্তর ভাদ্রপদ	Uttṛṭṭāti ഉത്രട്ടാതി	Uttṛṭṭādhi உத்திரட்டாதி	Uttarābhādra ఉత్తరాభాద్ర	Uttarābhādra ಉತ್ತರಾ ಭಾದ್ರ	γ Pegasi and α Andromedae
27	Revatī रेवती	Revatī রেবতী	Rēvati രേവതി	Rēvathi ரேவதி	Rēvati రేవతి	Rēvati ರೇವತಿ	ζ Piscium

Yoga

The Sanskrit word Yoga means "union", but in astronomical calculations it is used in the sense of "alignment". First one computes the angular distance along the ecliptic of each object, taking the ecliptic to start at Meṣa or Aries (Meṣādi, as defined above): this is called the longitude of that object. The longitude of the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means 1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are labelled:

1. Viṣkambha
2. Prīti
3. Āyuśmān
4. Saubhāgya
5. Śobhana
6. Atigaṇḍa
7. Sukarma
8. Dhṛti
9. Śūla
10. Gaṇḍa
11. Vṛddhi
12. Dhruva
13. Vyāghatā
14. Harṣaṇa
15. Vajra
16. Siddhi
17. Vyatipāta
18. Variyas
19. Parigha
20. Śiva
21. Siddha
22. Sādhya
23. Śubha
24. Śukla
25. Brahma
26. Māhendra
27. Vaidhṛti

Again, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day is the prevailing yoga for the day.

Karaṇa

A karaṇa is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.)

Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4 "fixed" (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.

The 4

1. Śakuni (शकुनि)
2. Catuṣpāda (चतुष्पाद)
3. Nāga (नाग)
4. Kiṃstughna (किंस्तुघ्न)

The 7 "repeating" karaṇas are:^[6]

1. Vava or Bava (बव)
2. Valava or Bālava (बालव)
3. Kaulava (कौलव)
4. Taitila or Taitula (तैतिल)
5. Gara or Garaja (गरज)
6. Vaṇija (वणिज)
7. Viṣṭi (Bhadra) (भद्रा)

• Now the first half of the 1st tithi (of Śukla Pakṣa) is always Kiṃtughna karaṇa. Hence this karaṇa' is "fixed".
• Next, the 7-repeating karaṇas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-tithis. Thus these are the "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.
• The 3 remaining half-tithis take the remaining "fixed" karaṇas in order. Thus these are also "fixed" (sthira).
• Thus one gets 60 karaṇas from those 11 preset karaṇas.

The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day.

Month/Zodiac

The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar day. Also illustrates Kshaya Tithi (Vaishaka-Krishna-Chaturdashi (i.e. 14th)) and Adhika Tithi (Jyeshta- Shukla-Dashami(i.e. 10th))

There are two traditions being followed with respect to the start of the month. Amavasyant (Amanta) tradition followed mainly in the western and southern states of India (namely Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu) considers a new moon occurring before sunrise on a day to be the first day of the lunar month.^[7] Purnimant tradition, on the other hand, considers the next day of a full moon to be the first day of the lunar month. This tradition is chiefly followed in the northern and eastern states of India (Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh).^[7] Having the two active traditions in practice would also mean that while the month names of the Hindu lunar calendar remains the same, there is on an average 15 days' difference in starting and ending of the month between the two traditions. This has its effects in the dates of recurring annual events such as the holy month of Śrāvaṇa.^[8] For example, between the followers of the two traditions, the start of Śrāvaṇa month and its religious abstinence and observations will be deferred by 15 days for the followers of Amavasyant tradition.

A month contains two halves(pakṣas), the waxing half and the waning half. Each half is 15 phases long. There are two different systems for making the lunar calendar:

• Amāvāsyanta or mukhya mana system – a month begins with a new moon and ends at new moon(the waning half follows the waxing half), mostly followed in south India
• Pūrṇimānta or gauna mana system – a month begins with a full moon and ends at full moon(the waxing half follows the waning half), followed more in north India. Pūrṇimānta is also known as Śuklānta Māsa and this system is recommended by Varāhamihira.

The zodiac decides the number of the month which the zodiac enters. If there's no zodiac enters a month, the month is an extra month. If there're two zodiacs enter a month, the second zodiac decides a vacant month.

Month names

There are 12 months in Hindu lunar calendar (Sanskrit: मासाः):

1. Chaitra
2. Vaiśākha
3. Jyeṣṭha
4. Āṣāḍha
5. Śrāvaṇa
6. Bhādrapada, Bhādra or Proṣṭhapada
7. Ashvin
8. Kārtika
9. Agrahāyaṇa, Mārgaśīrṣa
10. Pauṣa
11. Māgha
12. Phālguna

Names of months are interesting. It depends on the aster-ism name, the moon is in at full moon day of the month. for e.g. Chaitra month is when full moon is in Citrā nakṣatra , Ashvin month is when full moon is in Aśvinī nakṣatra

There are 12 rāśi names, there are twelve lunar month names. When the sun transits into the Meṣa rāśi in a lunar month, then the name of the lunar month is Chaitra which has both Mīna rāśi and Meṣa rāśi . When the sun transits into Vṛṣabha rāśi, then the lunar month is Vaiśākha which has both Meṣa rāśi and Vṛṣabha rāśi. So on.

Purshottam maas is an extra month or thirteen in the Hindu calendar. This is been done for bridging of the lunar and solar calendars

Seasons

If the transits of the Sun through various constellations of the zodiac (Rāśi) are used, then we get solar months, which do not shift with reference to the Gregorian calendar. The solar months along with the corresponding Hindu seasons and Gregorian months are:

(Rāśi) Saura Māsa (solar months)	Ṛtu (season)	Bengali name	Kannada name	Telugu name	Malayalam name	Tamil name	Gregorian Tropical months	Sidereal Vedic Zodiac
Meṣa	Grīṣma (summer)	গ্রীষ্ম (Grishmô)	ಗ್ರೀಷ್ಮ ಋತು (Grīṣma Ṛtu)	గ్రీష్మ ఋతువు (Grīṣma Ṛtuvu)	ഗ്രീഷ്മം (Grīṣmam)	இளவேனில் (ilavenil)	Apr-May	Aries
Vṛṣabha							May–June	Taurus
Mithuna	Varṣā (monsoon)	বর্ষা (Bôrsha)	ವರ್ಷ ಋತು (Varṣa Ṛtu)	వర్ష ఋతువు (Varṣa Ṛtuvu)	വർഷം (Varṣām)	முதுவேனில் (mudhuvenil)	June–July	Gemini
Karkaṭa							July-Aug	Cancer
Siṃha	Śarad (autumn)	শরৎ(Shôrôt)	ಶರದೃತು (Śaradṛtu)	శరదృతువు (Śaradṛtuvu)	ശരത് (Śarat)	கார் (kaar)	Aug-Sept	Leo
Kanyā							Sept-Oct	Virgo
Tulā	Hemanta (Late-Autumn)	হেমন্ত (Hemôntô)	ಹೇಮಂತ ಋತು (Hēmaṃta Ṛtu)	హేమంత ఋతువు (Hēmaṃta Ṛtuvu)	ഹേമന്തം (Hemantam)	குளிர் (kulir)	Oct-Nov	Libra
Vṛścik‌‌‌a							Nov-Dec	Scorpius
Dhanu	Śiśira (Winter)	শীত (Shīth)	ಶಿಶಿರ ಋತು (Śiśira Ṛtu)	శిశిర ఋతువు (Śiśira Ṛtuvu)	ശിശിരം (Śiśiram)	முன்பனி (munpani)	Dec-Jan	Sagittarius
Makara							Jan-Feb	Capricornus
Kumbha	Vasanta (spring)	বসন্ত (Bôsôntô)	ವಸಂತ ಋತು (Vasaṃta Ṛtu)	వసంత ఋతువు (Vasaṃta Ṛtuvu)	വസന്തം (Vasaṃtam)	பின்பனி (pinpani)	Feb-Mar	Aquarius
Mīna							Mar-Apr	Pisces

The Sanskrit derivation of the lunar month names Chaitra etc. is seen for example in the (lunar) month which has its central full moon occurring at or near the Citrā nakṣatra. This month is called Chaitra. Another example is let's say when Pūrṇimā occurs in or near Viśākha nakṣatra, this in turn results in the initiation of the lunar month titled Vaiśākha Māsa.^[9]

Similarly, for the nakṣatras Viśākha, Jyeṣṭhā, (Pūrva) Āṣāḍhā, Śravaṇa, Bhādrapadā, Aśvinī (old name Aśvayuj), Kṛttikā, Mṛgaśiras, Puṣya, Meghā and (Pūrva/Uttara) Phalguṇī the names Vaiśākha etc. at pūrṇimā, the other lunar names are derived subsequently.

Extra months (Adhika Māsa)

The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar months. Also illustrates Adhika Masa (Year 2-Bhadrapada) repeats; the first time the Sun moves entirely within Simha Rashi thus rendering it an Ashika Masa

When the sun does not at all transit into any rāśi but simply keeps moving within a rāśi in a lunar month (i.e. before a new moon), then that lunar month will be named according to the first upcoming transit. It will also take the epithet of adhika or "extra". For example, if a lunar month elapsed without a solar transit and the next transit is into Meṣa, then this month without transit is labelled Adhika Chaitra Māsa. The next month will be labelled according to its transit as usual and will get the epithet nija ("original") or Śuddha ("unmixed"). In the animation above, Year 2 illustrates this concept with Bhadrapada repeating; the first time the Sun stays entirely within Simha rashi thus resulting in an Adhika Bhadrapada.

Extra Month, or adhika māsa (māsa = lunar month in this context) is also known as puruśottama māsa, it is said that the name has been given by Lord Vishnu as his name to this month. Twelve Hindu mas (māsa) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the sun passes through the sidereal zodiac in 365 1/4 days. This creates a difference of about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53/10.63) = 2.71 years, or approximately every 32.5 months. No adhika māsa falls during Kārtika to Māgh.

A month-long fair is celebrated in Machhegaun during adhika māsa. It is general belief that one can wash away all one's sins by taking a bath in the Machhenarayan's pond.

Lost months (Kṣaya Māsa)

If the sun transits into two rāshis within a lunar month, then the month will have to be labelled by both transits and will take the epithet kṣaya or "loss". There is considered to be a "loss" because in this case, there is only one month labelled by both transits. If the sun had transited into only one raashi in a lunar month as is usual, there would have been two separate months labelled by the two transits in question.

For example, if the sun transits into Meṣa and Vṛṣabha in a lunar month, then it will be called Chaitra-Vaiśākha kṣaya-māsa. There will be no separate months labelled Chaitra and Vaiśākha.

A Kṣaya-Māsa occurs very rarely. Known gaps between occurrence of Kṣaya-Māsas are 19 and 141 years. The last was in 1983. 15 January through 12 February were Pauṣa-Māgha kṣaya-māsa. 13 February onwards was (Adhika) Phālguna.

Special Case:

If there is no solar transit in one lunar month but there are two transits in the next lunar month,

• the first month will be labelled by the first transit of the second month and take the epithet Adhika and
• the next month will be labelled by both its transits as is usual for a Kṣaya-Māsa

This is a very very rare occurrence. The last was in 1315. 8 October to 5 November were Kārtika Adhika-Māsa. 6 November to 5 December were Kārtika-Mārgaśīrṣa Kṣaya-Māsa. 6 December onwards was Pauṣa.

Religious observances in case of extra and lost months

Among normal months, adhika months, and kshaya months, the earlier are considered "better" for religious purposes. That means, if a festival should fall on the 10th tithi of the Āshvayuja month (this is called Vijayadashamī) and there are two Āśvayuja (Āśvina)' months caused by the existence of an adhika Āśvayuja, the first adhika month will not see the festival, and the festival will be observed only in the second nija month. However, if the second month is āshvayuja kshaya then the festival will be observed in the first adhika month itself.

When two months are rolled into one in the case of a kshaya māsa, the festivals of both months will also be rolled into this Kṣaya Māsa', unless "adhika māsa" precedes it. For example, the festival of Mahāshivarātri which is to be observed on the fourteenth tithi of the Māgha Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa was, in 1983, observed on the corresponding tithi of Pauṣa-Māgha Kṣaya Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa, since in that year, Pauṣa and Māgha were rolled into one, and nija margashirsha preceded it, as mentioned above.

Vaiṣṇava calendar

Month	Presiding Deity of the month
Agrahāyaṇa	Keśava
Pauṣa	Nārāyaṇa
Maghā	Mādhava
Phālguna	Govinda
Chaitra	Viṣṇu
Vaiśākha	Madhusudana
Jyeṣṭha	Trivikrama
Āṣāḍha	Vāmana
Śrāvaṇa	Śrīdhara
Bhādrapada	Hṛṣīkeśa
Āśvina	Padmanābha
Kārtika	Dāmodara

Year of the lunisolar calendar

The new year day is the first day of the shukla paksha of Chaitra. In the case of adhika or kshaya months relating to Chaitra, the aforementioned religious rules apply giving rise to the following results:

• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a nija Chaitra, the new year starts with the nija Chaitra. (e.g., 22 February AD 1015)
• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya, the new year starts with the adhika Chaitra.
• If a Chaitra-Vaiśākha Kṣaya occurs with no adhika Chaitra before it, then it starts the new year.
• If a Chaitra-Phālguna Kṣaya' occurs, it starts the new year.

Another kind of lunisolar calendar

There is another kind of lunisolar calendar which differs from the former in the way the months are named. When a full moon (instead of new moon) occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. In this case, the end of the lunar month will coincide with a full moon. This is called the pūrṇimānta māna - full-moon-ending reckoning, as against the amānta māna - new-moon-ending reckoning used before.

This definition leads to a lot of complications:

• The first pakṣa of the month will fall on Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa whilst the second will be Śukla-Pakṣa in Pūrṇimānta system.
• The new year is still on the first day of the Chaitra Śukla-Pakṣa. The subsequent Pakṣas will, for example, be:

Lunar Month Candra Māsa	First Pakṣa	Ending (2nd) Pakṣa
Vaiśākha	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Jyaiṣṭha	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Āṣāḍha	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Śrāvaṇa	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Bhādrapada	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Āśvina	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Kārtika	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Mārgaśīrṣa	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Pauṣa	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Māgha	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Phālguna	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
Chaitra	Śukla-Pakṣa	Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa

Note:

1. Phālguna Māsa is the last lunar month, with the last pakṣa of the year in this pūrṇimānta system being Phālguna Śukla-Pakṣa.

• The Śukla Pakṣa of a given month, say Chaitra, comprises the same actual days in both systems, as can be deduced from a careful analysis of the rules. However, the Chaitra Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣas defined by the 2 systems will be on different days, since the Chaitra Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa precedes the Chaitra Śukla-Pakṣa in the pūrnimānta system but follows it in the amānta system.
• Though the regular months are defined by the full moon, the adhika and kṣaya lunar months are still defined by the new moon. That is, even if the pūrnimānta system is followed, adhika or kṣaya months will start with the first sunrise after the new moon, and end with the new moon.
• The adhika month will therefore get sandwiched between the 2 pakṣas of the nija months. For example, a Śrāvaṇa Adhika Māsa will be inserted as follows:
  1. nija Śrāvaṇa Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
  2. adhika Śrāvaṇa Śukla-Pakṣa
  3. adhika Śrāvaṇa Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa and
  4. nija Shrāvana Śukla-Pakṣa
     after which Bhādrapada Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa will follow subsequently as usual.
• If there is an adhika Chaitra, then it will follow the (nija) Chaitra Krṣṇa-Pakṣa at the end of the year. Only with the nija Chaitra Śukla-Pakṣa will the new year start. The only exception is when it is followed by a kṣaya, and that will be mentioned later.
• The kṣaya month is more complicated. If in the amānta system there is a Pauṣa-Māgha Kṣaya Māsa, then in the pūrnimānta system there will be the following pakṣas:
  1. Pauṣa Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
  2. Pauṣa-Maagha kshaya Śukla-Pakṣa
  3. Māgha-Phālguna Kṣaya Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa and a
  4. Phālguna Śukla-Pakṣa.
• The special Kṣaya case where an adhika māsa precedes a kshaya māsa gets even more convoluted. First, we should remember that the Āśvina Śukla-Pakṣa is the same in both the systems. After this come the following Pakṣas:
  1. nija Kārtika Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
  2. adhika Kārtika Śukla-Pakṣa
  3. adhika Kārtika Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
  4. Kārtika-Māgaśīrṣa Kṣaya Śukla-Pakṣa
  5. Māgaśīrsa-Pauṣa Kṣaya Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa
  6. Pauṣa Śukla-Pakṣa
     followed by the Māgha Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa etc., as usual.
• The considerations for the new year are:
  1. If there is a Chaitra-Vaiśākha Kṣaya Śukla-Pakṣa:
     1. if an adhika Chaitra' precedes it, then the 'adhika Chaitra Śukla-Pakṣa starts the new year
     2. if not, the Kṣaya Śukla-Pakṣa starts the new year
  2. If there is a Phālguna-Chaitra Kṣaya Śukla-Pakṣa then it starts the new year

However, none of these above complications cause a change in the day of religious observances. Since only the name of the Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣas of the months will change in the two systems, festivals which fall on the Kṛṣṇa-Pakṣa will be defined by the appropriate changed name. That is, the Mahāśivarātri, defined in the amānta māna to be observed on the fourteenth of the Māgha krishna paksha will now (in the pūrnimānta māna) be defined by the Phālguna krishna paksha.

Year numbering

The epoch (starting point or first day of the zeroth year) of the current era of Hindu calendar (both solar and lunisolar) is 18 February 3102 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar or 23 January 3102 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. According to the Purāṇas this was the moment when Śrī Kṛṣṇa returned to his eternal abode.^[10][11] Both the solar and lunisolar calendars started on this date. After that, each year is labelled by the number of years elapsed since the epoch.

This is an unusual feature of the Hindu calendar. Most systems use the current ordinal number of the year as the year label. But just as a person's true age is measured by the number of years that have elapsed starting from the date of the person's birth, the Hindu calendar measures the number of years elapsed. As of 31 August 2014, 5116 years have elapsed in the Hindu calendar. However, the lunisolar calendar year usually starts earlier than the solar calendar year, so the exact year will not begin on the same day every year.

Year names

Apart from the numbering system outlined above, there is also a cycle of 60 calendar year names, called Samvatsaras, which started at the first year (at elapsed years zero) and runs continuously:

1. Prabhava
2. Vibhava
3. Shukla
4. Pramoda (Also Pramodootha)
5. Prajāpati (Also Prajothpatthi)
6. Āngirasa
7. Shrīmukha
8. Bhāva
9. Yuva
10. Dhātri
11. Īshvara
12. Bahudhānya
13. Pramādhi
14. Vikrama (2000-2001)
15. Vrisha (2001–02)
16. Chitrabhānu (2002–03)
17. Svabhānu (2003–04)
18. Tārana (2004–05)
19. Pārthiva (2005–06)
20. Vyaya (2006-2007)
21. Sarvajeeth (2007–08)
22. Sarvadhāri (2008–09)
23. Virodhi (2009–10)
24. Vikrita (2010–11)
25. Khara (2011–12)
26. Nandana (2012–13)
27. Vijaya (2013–14)
28. Jaya (2014–15)
29. Manmatha (2015–16)
30. Durmukhi (2016–17)
31. Hevilambi (2017–18)
32. Vilambi (2018–19)
33. Vikāri (2019–20)
34. Shārvari (2020–21)
35. Plava (2021–22)
36. Shubhakruti (2022–23)
37. Sobhakruthi (2023–24)
38. Krodhi (2024–25)
39. Vishvāvasu (2025–26)
40. Parābhava (2026–27)
41. Plavanga (2027–28)
42. Kīlaka (2028–29)
43. Saumya (2029–30)
44. Sādhārana (2030–31)
45. Virodhikruthi (2031–32)
46. Paridhāvi (2032–33)
47. Pramādicha (2033–34)
48. Ānanda (2034–35)
49. Rākshasa (2035–36)
50. Anala (2036–37)
51. Pingala (2037–38)
52. Kālayukthi (2038–39)
53. Siddhārthi (2039–40)
54. Raudra (2040–41)
55. Durmathi (2041–42)
56. Dundubhi (2042–43)
57. Rudhirodgāri (2043–44)
58. Raktākshi (2044–45)
59. Krodhana (2045–46)
60. Akshaya (2046–47)

This system contains a concept of leap years similar to the Julian calendar . Every 4 years, there will be 366 days where the rest have 365. The starting point is Meshadi or Mesha Sankranti, (1st day of Meṣa or the Hindu solar new year). It is also counted on a daily basis. Beginning from 1 on the first day, it has presently reached over 1864000 days. This means that that many days have passed in the present Kaliyuga (1/10 of Catur-Yugas total).

Eras

Hinduism follows Hindu units of time containing four eras (or yuga, meaning age). The four yugas are:

1. Kṛta Yuga or Satya Yuga
2. Treta Yuga
3. Dwapar Yuga
4. Kali Yuga

They are often translated into English as the Golden, Silver, Bronze and Iron Ages, respectively. The ages follow a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, life span and emotional and physical strength. The Kali Yuga began approximately five thousand years ago, and it has a duration of 432,000 years. The Dvāpara, Tretā, and Kṛta Yugas are two, three, and four times the length of the Kali Yuga, respectively. Thus, the ages together constitute a 4,320,000 year period.

A thousand and a thousand (i.e. two thousand) Chatur-Yugas are said to be one day and night of the creator Brahmā. Brahmā lives for 100 years of 360 "days" and at the end, he is said to dissolve, along with his entire Creation, into the Eternal Soul or Paramātman.

History

The Hindu calendar descends from the Vedic times. There are many references to calendrics in the Vedas. The (6) Vedāṅgas (auto Veda) called Jyotiṣa (literally, "celestial body study") prescribed all the aspects of the Hindu calendars. After the Vedic period, there were many scholars such as Āryabhaṭa (5th century), Varāhamihira (6th century) and Bhāskara (12th century) who were expert scholars in Jyotiṣa and contributed to the development of the Hindu calendar.

The most widely used authoritative text for the Hindu calendars is the "Sūrya Siddhānta", a text of uncertain age, though some place it at 10th century.

The traditional Vedic calendar used to start with the month of agrahayan (agra=first + ayan = travel of the sun, equinox) or Mārgaśīṣa. This is the month where the Sun crosses the equator, i.e. the vernal equinox. This month was called mārgashirsha after the fifth nakshatra (around lambda orionis). Due to the precession of the Earth's axis, the vernal equinox is now in Pisces, and corresponds to the month of chaitra. This shift over the years is what has led to various calendar reforms in different regions to assert different months as the start month for the year. Thus, some calendars (e.g. Vikram) start with Chaitra, which is the present-day month of the vernal equinox, as the first month. Others may start with Vaiśākha (e.g. Bangabda). The shift in the vernal equinox by nearly four months from Agrahāyaṇa to Chaitra in sidereal terms seems to indicate that the original naming conventions may date to the fourth or fifth millennium BCE, since the period of precession in the Earth's axis is about 25,800 years.

Regional variants

The Indian Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty well-developed calendars, all variants of the Surya Siddhanta calendar outlined here, in systematic use across different parts of India. These include the widespread Vikrama and Shalivahana calendars and regional variations thereof. The Tamil calendar, a solar calendar, is used in Tamil Nadu and Kollavarsham calendar is used in Kerala.

The two calendars most widely used today are the Vikrama calendar which is followed in Nepal as national calendar and also in the Indian regions like western and northern India and the Shalivahana or Saka calendar which is followed in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.

In the year 56 BC, Vikrama Samvat era was founded by the emperor Vikramaditya of Ujjain following his victory over the Sakas. Later, in a similar fashion, Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni initiated the Saka era to celebrate his victory against the Sakas in the year AD 78.

Both the Vikrama and the Shalivahana are lunisolar calendars, and feature annual cycles of twelve lunar months, each month divided into two phases: the 'bright half' (Śukla Pakṣa) and the 'dark half' (Kṛṣṇa Pakṣa); these correspond respectively to the periods of the 'waxing' and the 'waning' of the moon. Thus, the period beginning from the first day after the new moon and ending on the full moon day constitutes the Śukla Pakṣa, 'bright part' of the month; the period beginning from the day after Pūrṇimā (the full moon) until and including the next new moon day constitutes the Kṛṣṇa Pakṣa, the'dark part' of the month.

The names of the 12 months, as also their sequence, are the same in both calendars; however, the new year is celebrated at separate points during the year and the "year zero" for the two calendars is different. In the Vikrama calendar, the zero year corresponds to 56 BC, while in the Shalivahana calendar, it corresponds to AD 78. The Vikrama calendar begins with the month of Baiśākha or Vaiśākha (April), or Kartak (October/November) in Gujarat. The Shalivahana calendar begins with the month of Chaitra (March) and the Ugadi/Gudi Padwa festivals mark the new year.

Another little-known difference between the two calendars exists: while each month in the Shalivahana calendar begins with the 'bright half' and is followed by the 'dark half', the opposite obtains in the Vikrama calendar. Thus, each month of the Shalivahana calendar ends with the no-moon day and the new month begins on the day after that, while the full-moon day brings each month of the Vikrama calendar to a close (This is an exception in Gujarati calendar, its month (and hence new year) starts on a sunrise of the day after new moon, and ends on the new moon, though it follows Vikram Samvat).

In Gujarat, Diwali is held on the final day of the Vikram calendar and the next day marks the beginning of the New Year and is also referred as ‘Annakut’ or Nutan Varsh or Bestu Varash. In the Hindu calendar popularly used in north India the year begins with Chaitra Shukala Pratipadha (March – April).

Samvat calendars

Samvat is one of the several Hindu calendars in India:

• Vikram Samvat: lunar months, solar sidereal years
• Shaka Samvat (traditional): lunar months, solar sidereal years
• Shaka Samvat (modern): solar tropical
• Bangla calendar: solar tropical years
• Tamil Nadu/Kerala: solar tropical years such as Tamil calendar
• Nepali calendar with Bikram Sambat: solar tropical years

Most holidays in India are based on the first two calendars. A few are based on the solar cycle, Sankranti (solar sidereal) and Baisakhi (solar tropical).

Months and approximate correspondence

Indian months are listed below, numbered according to the Shaka calendar. The Shaka and Chaitradi Vikram Samvat years start with the Chiatra month: this convention is used in several regions including Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra. The Karttikadi Vikram Samvat year starts in the Kartika month: this convention is used in Gujarat.

#	Indian	Gregorian
1	Chaitra	March–April
2	Vaisākha	April–May
3	Jyeshta	May–June
4	Āshāda	June–July
5	Shraavana	July–August
6	Bhādrapada	August–September
7	Ashwina	September–October
8	Kartika	October–November
9	Mārgasirsa (Agrahayana)	November–December
10	Pausha	December–January
11	Māgha	January–February
12	Phālguna	February–March

Nakshatras are divisions of ecliptic, each 13° 20', starting from 0° Aries. The purnima of each month is synchronised with a nakshatra.

Time cycles in India

The time cycles in India are:

• 60-year cycle
• Year
• 6 seasons of a year
• about 60 days (2 months) in a season
• Month (lunar)
• 2 pakshas in a month, shukla (waxing) and krishna (waning)
• 15 tithis in a paksha (1-14, 15th is purnima or amavasya)
• 60 ghatikas (or 30 muhurtas or 8 praharas) in a 24-hour period (ahoratra).
• 30 Kala (approx) in 1 muhurta
• 30 Kastha in 1 kala
• 15 Nimisha in 1 kastha

Years are synchronised with the solar sidereal year by adding a month every three years. The extra month is termed as "Adhik Mass" (extra month). This extra month is called Mala Masa (impure month) in eastern India.

Date conversion

Converting a date from an Indian calendar to the common era can require a complex computation. To obtain the approximate year AD:

• Chaitradi Vikram (past) : Chaitra-Pausha: subtract 57; Pausha-Phalguna: subtract 56.
• Shaka: add 78-79
• Kalachuri: add 248-249
• Gupta/Valabhi: add 319-320
• Bangla: add 593-594
• Vira Nirvana Samvat: subtract 527-526
• Yudhishthira Samvat: add 3101 (Ascension of Lord Krishna at age 125)
• Sri Krishna Samvat: add 3226 (Birth of Lord Sri Krishna)
• Balabhi Samvat: add 320

Variations

• In Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and many northern region of India months are Purnimanta (means month ends on Purnima or full moon). In Gujarat, Maharashtra, and other parts of many south Indian regions, months are Amanta (months end on Amavasya).
• In inscriptions, the years may be gata (past) or current.

National calendars in South and South East Asia

A variant of the Shalivahana calendar was reformed and standardised as the Indian National calendar in 1957. This official calendar follows the Shalivahan Shak calendar in beginning from the month of Chaitra and counting years with AD 78 being year zero. It features a constant number of days in every month (with leap years).

The Bengali calendar (introduced 1584), is widely used in eastern India in the state of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam. A reformation of this calendar was introduced in present-day Bangladesh in 1966, with constant days in each month and a leap year system; this serves as the national calendar for Bangladesh. Nepal follows the Bikram Sambat. Parallel months and roughly the same periods apply to the Buddhist calendars used in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand.

Correspondence between calendars

As an indicator of this variation, Whitaker's Almanac reports that the Gregorian year AD 2000 corresponds, respectively with:

1. Year 5102 in the Kaliyuga calendar; (3102 BC)
2. Year 2544 in the Buddha Nirvana calendar; (544 BC)
3. Year 2543 in the Buddhist Era (BE) of the Thai solar calendar (543 BC)
4. Year 2057 in the Bikram Samvat calendar; (57 BC)
5. Year 1922 in the Saka calendar; (AD 78)
6. Year 1921 (shown in terms of 5-yearly cycles) of the Vedanga Jyotisa calendar; (AD 79)
7. Year 1407 in the Bengali calendar; (AD 593)
8. Year 1362 in the Burmese Calendar; (AD 638)
9. Year 1176 in the Malayalam calendar or Kolla Varsham calendar; (AD 824)
10. Year 514 in the Gaurabda Gaudiya calendar. (AD 1486)

See also

• Hindu astrology
• Hindu chronology
• Hindu units of measurement
• List of Hindu festivals
• Panchangam
• Panjika
• Ancient Vedic units of measurement
• Perpetual Calendar of 800 Years
• Pambu Panchangam
• Kollam era

References

1. Time Measurement and Calendar Construction. Brill Archive. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
2. Defouw, Hart; Robert Svoboda (2003). Light on Life: An Introduction to the Astrology of India. Lotus Press. p. 186. ISBN 0-940985-69-1.
3. Chatterjee, S.K. (1998). Indian Calendric System. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
4. Chia Daphne and Helmer Aslaksen (April 2001). "Indian Calendars: Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris" (PDF). Retrieved 2004-04-04.
5. Basham, A.L. (1954). The Wonder that was India. Macmillan (Rupa and Co, Calcutta, reprint). Appendix II: Astronomy.
6. Ebenezer Burgess (1989). Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-81-208-0612-2.
7. Drik Panchang (25 May 2016). "Difference between North Indian and South Indian Lunar Calendar". Retrieved 25 May 2016.
8. Drik Panchang (25 May 2016). "2016 Sawan Somwar fasting days for Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, India". Retrieved 25 May 2016.
9. Hindu Lunar Month Names.
10. Bhāgavata Purāṇa 12.2.29-33.
11. Yano, Michio, "Calendar, astrology and astronomy" in Flood, Gavin (Ed) (2003). Blackwell companion to Hinduism. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21535-2.

Further reading

• Reingold and Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition, Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004. ISBN 0-521-77752-6
• S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.
• Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, The Paleography of India, 2 ed., Ajmer, 1918, reprinted Manshuram Manoharlal publishers, 1993.

External links

• Hindu Calendars in various Indian Languages
• Marathi Calendar 2017
• Hindu Calendar of Nepal The Official Hindu Calendar of Nepal
• Kyoto University Panchanga Converter Program

Template:Marathi calendar