Outline of biology

Drosophila melanogaster, commonly used as a model organism

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biology:

Biology – study of living organisms. It is concerned with the characteristics, classification, and behaviors of organisms, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from biophysics to ecology. All concepts in biology are subject to the same laws that other branches of science obey, such as the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of energy.

Branches of biology

Branch of biology – subdiscipline of biology, also referred to as a biological science. Note that biology and all of its branches are also life sciences.

• Aerobiology – study of airborne organic particles
• Agriculture – study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications
• Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans
  • Animal anatomy
    • Mammal anatomy
      • Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human.
      • Marsupial anatomy
      • Carnivora#Distinguishing features
        • Bear#Morphology
        • Hyena#Build
        • Canidae#Anatomy
          • Dog anatomy
          • Gray wolf#Physical description
          • Golden jackal#Physical description
      • Even-toed ungulate#Anatomy
      • Odd-toed ungulate#Anatomy
        • Horse anatomy
        • Giraffe#Appearance and anatomy
• Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
• Bioinformatics – use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data
• Biomathematics (or mathematical biology) – quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling
• Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics
• Biomedical research – study of health and disease
  • Pharmacology – study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines
• Biomusicology – study of music from a biological point of view.
• Bionomics – comprehensive study of an organism and its relation to its environment
• Biosemiotics – the study of biological processes through semiotics, by applying the models of meaning-making and communication
• Biotechnology – new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
  • Synthetic biology – research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature
• Botany – study of plants
  • Phycology – scientific study of algae.
  • Plant physiology – subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants.^[1]
• Building biology – study of the indoor living environment
• Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell
• Cognitive biology – study of cognition as a biological function
• Conservation biology – study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife
• Chronobiology – field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms.
• Cryobiology – study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings.
• Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
  • Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth).
  • Gerontology – study of aging processes.
• Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment
• Environmental biology – study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity
• Epidemiology – major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations
• Evolution – any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations.
  • Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time
    • Evolutionary developmental biology – field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved.
  • Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology.
    • Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
• Genetics – study of genes and heredity
  • Epigenetics – study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence
  • Genomics – discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of organisms.
  • Proteomics – large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions
  • Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
• Ichnology – deals with traces of organismal behavior, such as burrows and footprints. It is generally considered as a branch of paleontology; however, only one division of ichnology, paleoichnology, deals with trace fossils, while neoichnology is the study of modern traces.
• Integrative biology – study of whole organisms
• Limnology – study of inland waters
• Marine biology (or Biological oceanography) – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings
• Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things
  • Bacteriology – study of bacteria
  • Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism
  • Virology – study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
• Molecular biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry
  • Structural biology – branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
• Morphology – In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.
• Mycology – study of fungi
• Oceanography – study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean
• Neuroscience – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology, and pathology
• Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation, oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings
• Photobiology – scientific study of the interactions of light (technically, non-ionizing radiation) and living organisms. The field includes the study of photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects.
• Population biology – study of groups of conspecific organisms, including:
  • Population ecology – study of population dynamics and extinction
  • Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
• Palynology – analyses particulate samples collected from the air, water, or from deposits including sediments of any age. The condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, the environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores, orbicules, dinocysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments.
• Pathobiology or pathology – study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease
• Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism
• Pharmacology – study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines
• Physiology – study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
  • Immunology – study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.
  • Kinesiology – Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement
  • Neurobiology – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology
    • Neuroscience – interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system
      • Behavioral neuroscience (or biological psychology) – application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals. It typically investigates at the level of neurons, neurotransmitters, brain circuitry and the basic biological processes that underlie normal and abnormal behavior.
  • Histology – study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals
• Phytopathology – study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
• Radiobiology – study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things.
• Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
• Systematics – study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time
  • Cladistics – method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else)
  • Phylogeny – study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices
  • Taxonomy – science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification.
• Systems biology – - computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems.
• Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior. Subbranches include:
  • Arthropodology – biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs.
    • Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks
    • Arachnology - scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids
    • Entomology - study of insects
      • Coleopterology – study of beetles
      • Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans)
      • Myrmecology – scientific study of ants
    • Carcinology - study of crustaceans
    • Myriapodology - study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods
  • Ethology – scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions
    • Tool use in animals
    • Animal cognition
      • Primate intelligence
      • Pinniped#Intelligence
      • Cetacean intelligence
        • Killer whale#Intelligence
        • Bottlenose dolphin#Intelligence
        • Common bottlenose dolphin#Intelligence
      • Rat#General intelligence
      • Sheep#Intelligence and learning ability
    • Animal sexual behavior
      • Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals
        • Homosexual behavior in animals
      • Sexual behavior of mammals
        • Sexual behavior of dogs
        • Sexual behavior of wolves
        • Sexual behavior of golden jackals
        • Reproductive behavior of pinnipeds
        • Rut (mammalian reproduction)
        • Sexual behavior of deer
          • Sexual behavior of elk
          • Waterbuck#Reproduction
          • Chital#Breeding
        • Sexual behavior of elephants
        • Sexual behavior of spotted hyenas
        • Reproductive behavior of short-beaked echidnas
  • Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms
  • Herpetology – study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras).
    • Batrachology – subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone
  • Ichthyology – study of fishes. This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Agnatha).
  • Malacology – branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods.
  • Mammalogy – study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology." There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals.
    • Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea.
    • Physical anthropology – studies the physical development of the human species.
    • Primatology - scientific study of primates
  • Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms
  • Ornithology – scientific study of birds.

Interdisciplines:

• Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level
• Biophysics – study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences
• Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally
• Bioclimatology is the interdisciplinary field of science that studies the interactions between the biosphere and the Earth's atmosphere on time scales of the order of seasons or longer (by opposition to biometeorology).
• Sociobiology – study of the biological bases of sociology
• Psychobiology – study of the biological bases of psychology
• Astrobiology – study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy

History of biology

History of biology

• History of anatomy
• History of biochemistry
• History of biotechnology
• History of ecology
• History of genetics
• History of evolutionary thought
  • History of molecular evolution
  • Modern evolutionary synthesis
• History of medicine
• History of model organisms
• History of molecular biology
• Natural history
• History of plant systematics

Ecology

• Ecology:
  • Autecology: autotroph — heterotroph — acclimatization — endotherm — ectotherm — hibernation — homeostasis — behavior — circadian rhythm
  • Population ecology: population — competition — mating — biological dispersal — endemism — niche — growth curve (biology) — carrying capacity
  • Community ecology: community — keystone species — mimicry — symbiosis — pollination — mutualism — commensalism — parasitism — predation — invasive species — environmental heterogeneity — edge effect
  • Ecosystems: biodiversity — biome — habitat — plankton — thermocline — carbon cycle — water cycle — nitrogen cycle — food web — trophic level — saprobe — decomposition

Evolution

• Life: origin of life — hierarchy of life - Miller–Urey experiment
• Evolutionary biology (evolution):
  • Microevolution: species — speciation — adaptation — selection — natural selection — directional selection — sexual selection — genetic drift — sexual reproduction — asexual reproduction — colony — allele frequency — neutral theory of molecular evolution — population genetics — Hardy-Weinberg principle
  • Macroevolution: adaptive radiation — convergent evolution — extinction — mass extinction — fossil — taphonomy — geologic time — plate tectonics — continental drift — vicariance — Gondwana — Pangaea — endosymbiosis
  • Systematics: taxon — taxonomy — scientific classification — phylogeny — evolutionary tree — cladistics — synapomorphy — homology — molecular clock

Organismal Biology

(also known as Functional biology)

• Nonliving organisms
  • Viruses : DNA viruses — RNA viruses — retroviruses
• Groups of living organisms
  • Prokaryota
    • Domains Bacteria and Archaea
  • Domain Eukaryotas:
    • • Kingdom Animalia
        • Vertebrates —Molluscs — Annelids — Arthropods — Sponges — Jellyfish
      • Kingdom Plantae
      • Kingdom Fungi
      • Kingdom Protista
• Developmental biology : gamete — spermatid — ovum — zygote — embryo — cellular differentiation — morphogenesis —homeobox
  • Animal development: stem cell — blastula — gastrula — egg (biology) — fetus — placenta
  • Plant development: seed — cotyledon — meristem — apical meristem — vascular cambium — cork cambium

• Morphology, anatomy and physiology:
  • Techniques: electrophysiology — electron microscopy
  • Tissues — Organs
  • Plant systems: root — shoot — stem — leaf — flower
    • vascular tissue — Casparian strip — turgor pressure — xylem — phloem — transpiration — wood
    • alternation of generations — gametophyte — antheridium — archegonium — sporophyte — spore — sporangium
    • tropism — taxis

• • Animal systems: skin cell
    • Skeletal system — bone — cartilage — joint — muscle — tendon — actin — myosin — reflex
    • Circulatory system — respiration — lung — heart — artery — vein — capillary — blood — blood cell
    • Digestive system — stomach — intestine — liver — nutrition — primary nutritional groups metabolism — kidney — excretion
    • Nervous system: limbic system — vestibular system — neuron — axon — dendrite — brain — eye — vision — audition — proprioception — olfaction — memory
    • nerve signaling: action potential — signal transduction — synapse — receptor
    • Endocrine system — hormone
    • Reproductive system — testes — ovary — pregnancy
      • Fish#Reproductive system
      • Mammalian reproductive system
        • Human reproductive system
        • Mammalian penis
          • Os penis
          • Penile spines
        • Genitalia of bottlenose dolphins
        • Genitalia of marsupials
        • Equine reproductive system
        • Even-toed ungulate#Genitourinary system
          • Bull#Reproductive system
        • Carnivora#Reproductive system
          • Fossa (animal)#External genitalia
          • Female genitalia of spotted hyenas
          • Cat anatomy#Genitalia
          • Genitalia of dogs
            • Canine penis
              • Bulbus glandis
    • Lymphatic system — lymph node
    • Immune system: antibody — host — vaccine — immune cell — AIDS — T-cell — leucocyte
• Medicine:
  • Diseases: Cancer — Diabetes — Heart disease
  • Drugs: antibiotic — barbiturate — SSRI
  • Techniques: MRI — Computed axial tomography — blood test

Cellular and molecular biology

• Cell biology: the cell coined by Robert Hooke
  • Techniques: cell culture — microscope — SEM — TEM
  • Cell Components:
    • Organelles: Cytoplasm — Vacuole — Peroxisome — Plastid
      • Cell nucleus
        • Nucleoplasm — Nucleolus — Chromatin — Chromosome
      • Endomembrane system
        • Nuclear envelope — Endoplasmic reticulum — Golgi apparatus — Vesicles — Lysosomes
      • Energy creators: Mitochondrion and Chloroplast
    • Biological membranes:
      • Plasma membrane — Mitochondrial membrane — Chloroplast membrane
    • Other subcellular features: Cell wall — pseudopod — cytoskeleton — mitotic spindle — flagellum — cilium
  • Cell processes:
    • Cell transport: Diffusion — Osmosis — isotonic — active transport — phagocytosis
    • Energy pathways: fermentation
      • Cellular respiration
        • Glycolysis — Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex — Citric acid cycle
      • Photosynthesis
        • Light-dependent reactions — Calvin cycle
    • Protein biosynthesis — ribosomes
    • Cellular reproduction: cytokinesis — centromere — meiosis
    • Nuclear reproduction: mitosis — interphase — prophase — metaphase — anaphase — telophase
    • programmed cell death — apoptosis — cell senescence

• Biochemistry:
  • Biomolecules:
    • Small: amino acids — Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) — fats — lipids — oil — phospholipid — prion — sugar — vitamins — neurotransmitter — wax
    • Medium-sized:
      • pigments: chlorophyll — carotenoid — xanthophyll — melanin
    • Biopolymers/macromolecules
      • proteins: primary structure — secondary structure — tertiary structure — conformation — native state — protein folding — enzyme — receptor — transmembrane receptor — ion channel — membrane transporter— collagen — silk
      • DNA — RNA
      • polysaccharide: cellulose — carbohydrate — chitin — glycogen — starch
  • Biochemical mechanisms: proteolysis — cooperativity
  • Techniques: electrophoresis — protein tag —affinity chromatography — x-ray diffraction — Proteomics — mass spectrometry
• Molecular biology:
  • genetic structure: DNA — DNA replication — nucleosome — genetic code — codon — transcription factor — transcription — translation — RNA — histone — telomere
  • gene expression — heterochromatin — promoter — enhancer — operon
  • mutation — point mutation — crossover — recombination —plasmid — transposon
  • molecular genetics: DNA fingerprinting — genetic fingerprint — microsatellite — gene knockout— imprinting — RNA interference
  • Genomics: computational biology — bioinformatics
  • Molecular Techniques: gel electrophoresis — transformation — PCR — PCR mutagenesis — primer — chromosome walking — RFLP — restriction enzyme — sequencing — shotgun sequencing — cloning — culture — DNA microarray

• Genetics (classical genetics) :
  • heredity — Mendelian inheritance — gene — locus — trait — allele — polymorphism — homozygote — heterozygote — hybrid — hybridization — dihybrid cross — Punnett square
  • genotype-phenotype distinction — genotype — phenotype — dominant gene — recessive gene
  • genetic interactions — Mendel's law of segregation — genetic mosaic — maternal effect — penetrance — complementation — suppression — epistasis — genetic linkage
  • chromosomal effects: chromosome — haploid — diploid — polyploidy — dosage effect — inbreeding
  • Model organisms: Drosophila — Arabidopsis — Caenorhabditis elegans — mouse — Saccharomyces cerevisiae — Escherichia coli — Lambda phage — Xenopus — chicken — zebrafish — Ciona intestinalis — amphioxus
  • Techniques: genetic screen — DNA paternity testing — linkage map — genetic map

Biologists

Main articles: Biologist and List of biologists

Charles Darwin

Gregor Mendel

Ronald Fisher

J. B. S. Haldane

• Charles Robert Darwin
• Alfred Russel Wallace
• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
• Gregor Mendel
• Hugo De Vries
• Aristotle
• Carl Linnaeus
• Konrad Lorenz
• Robert Hooke
• Louis Pasteur
• Robert Koch
• Marcello Malpighi
• Ernst Haeckel
• Alexander Fleming
• Sydney Brenner
• Linus Pauling
• Frederick Sanger
• Hans Adolf Krebs
• Kary Mullis
• Ernst Mayr
• Theodosius Dobzhansky
• Stephen Jay Gould
• Francis Galton
• Thomas Henry Huxley
• James D. Watson
• Francis Crick
• Lynn Margulis
• Carl Woese
• Ronald Fisher
• Sewall Wright
• J. B. S. Haldane
• Thomas Hunt Morgan
• Edmund Beecher Wilson
• Nettie Stevens
• François Jacob
• Jacques Monod
• Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
• Eric F. Wieschaus
• Alexander von Humboldt
• Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza
• Jacques Cousteau
• Jane Goodall

Lists of biologists

• List of biologists
  • List of botanists by author abbreviation
  • List of carcinologists
  • List of coleopterists
  • List of ecologists
  • List of malacologists
  • List of mammalogists
  • List of mycologists
  • List of ornithologists
  • List of pathologists
  • List of zoologists by author abbreviation
  • List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine

See also

• Invasion biology terminology
• Bibliography of biology
• List of omics topics in biology

Related outlines

• Outline of zoology
• Outline of engineering
• Outline of technology
• List of social sciences

References

1. Frank B. Salisbury; Cleon W. Ross (1992). Plant physiology. Brooks/Cole Pub Co. ISBN 0-534-15162-0.

External links

• The Dolan DNA Learning Center: The source for timely information about your life
• OSU's Phylocode
• The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
• MIT video lecture series on biology
• A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT.
• Biology and Bioethics.
• Biology online wiki dictionary.
• Biology Video Sharing Community.
• What is Biotechnology : a voluntary program as Biotech for Beginners.
• Branches of Biology Depict Its Essence in Diversities.

Journals

• Biology journals