Second-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity and thought that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s.[1] It later became a worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey[2] and Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries.[3]

Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.g., voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.[4] Second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military.

Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sex wars over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.[5][6][7][8][9]

Numerous feminist scholars, especially those from the late 20th century into the 21st century, critique the second-wave in the United States as reducing feminist activity into a homogenized and whitewashed chronology of feminist history that ignores the voices and contributions of many women of color, working-class women, and LGBT women.[10][11]

Overview

The second wave of feminism in North America came as a delayed reaction against the renewed domesticity of women after World War II: the late 1940s post-war boom, which was an era characterized by an unprecedented economic growth, a baby boom, a move to family-oriented suburbs, and the ideal of companionate marriages. This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the time; for example television shows such as Father Knows Best and Leave It to Beaver idealized domesticity.[12]

Before the second wave there were some important events which laid the groundwork for it. French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal society. She went on to conclude that male-centered ideology was being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the "second sex".[13] This book was translated from French to English (with some of its text excised) and published in America in 1953.[14]

In 1960 the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961.[15] This made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant.

External video
Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt; What Status For Women?, 59:07, 1962.
Eleanor Roosevelt, chair of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, interviews President John F. Kennedy, Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg and others, Open Vault from WGBH[16]

The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the New Frontier, and named women (such as Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.[17] Kennedy also established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants.[18] There were also notable actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, 50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk.[19][20]

In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home limited their possibilities and wasted potential. Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name".[21] The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.[22] This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism.[23]

Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed. The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality. The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" as early as 1964.[24]

The movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Griswold v. Connecticut Supreme Court ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president.[25]

Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.[25] Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members,[25] many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class.[26] Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.[27]

In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of Show.[28] In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume."[28] By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.[29]

Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 [30]), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 [31]), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973. However, the changing of social attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success of the women's movement. In January 2013, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the longtime ban on women serving in US military combat roles had been lifted.[32] The US Department of Defense plans to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016.[32]

Second-wave feminism also affected other movements, such as the civil rights movement and the student's rights movement, as women sought equality within them. In 1965 Casey Hayden and Mary King published "Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo"[33] detailing women's inequality within the civil rights organization SNCC.[34]

In June 1967 Jo Freeman attended a "free school'" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth [35] and Naomi Weisstein. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming National Conference of New Politics (NCNP), to be held over Labor Day weekend 1967 in Chicago. At that conference a woman's caucus was formed, and it (led by Freeman and Shulamith Firestone) tried to present its own demands to the plenary session.[36] However, the women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed.[37] When the National Conference for New Politics Director Willam F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about the American Indian, five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium to demand to know why.[37] But Willam F. Pepper patted Firestone on the head and said, "Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than women's liberation", or possibly, "Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems."[36][37] Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the "free school" course and the women's workshop at the conference; this became the first Chicago women's liberation group. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side. After a few months Freeman started a newsletter which she called Voice of the women's liberation movement. It circulated all over the country (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of women's liberation its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the Chicago Women's Liberation Union.

In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?'" (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism, 1971, pg. 120).[37] After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group.[37]

By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as Military academies, the United States armed forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and illegalizing gender discrimination. However, in 1982 adding the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution failed, having been ratified by only 35 states, leaving it three states short of ratification.

Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment and Nixon's veto of the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972 (which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system) the only major legislative defeats. Efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment have continued. Ten states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex, and most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Amendment. Furthermore, many women's groups are still active and are major political forces. As of 2011, more women earn bachelor's degrees than men,[38] half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men.[39] The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time, although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the Gender Pay Gap.[40] Whether this is due to discrimination is very hotly disputed, however economists and sociologists have provided evidence to that effect.[41][42][43]

Second-wave feminism in the U.S. coincided in the early 1980s with the feminist sex wars and was overlapped by third wave feminism in the early 1990s.

Second-wave feminists viewed popular culture as sexist, and created pop culture of their own to counteract this. Australian artist Helen Reddy's song "I Am Woman" played a large role in popular culture and became a feminist anthem; Reddy came to be known as a "feminist poster girl" or a "feminist icon".[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] "One project of second wave feminism was to create 'positive' images of women, to act as a counterweight to the dominant images circulating in popular culture and to raise women's consciousness of their oppressions."[51]

Timeline of second-wave feminism worldwide

1961

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

A Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970

1970

1971

The full text of the resolution reads:

Joint Resolution of Congress, 1971 Designating August 26 of each year as Women's Equality Day

WHEREAS, the women of the United States have been treated as second-class citizens and have not been entitled the full rights and privileges, public or private, legal or institutional, which are available to male citizens of the United States; and

WHEREAS, the women of the United States have united to assure that these rights and privileges are available to all citizens equally regardless of sex; and

WHEREAS, the women of the United States have designated August 26, the anniversary date of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, as symbol of the continued fight for equal rights: and

WHEREAS, the women of United States are to be commended and supported in their organizations and activities,

NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, that August 26 of each year is designated as "Women's Equality Day," and the President is authorized and requested to issue a proclamation annually in commemoration of that day in 1920, on which the women of America were first given the right to vote, and that day in 1970, on which a nationwide demonstration for women's rights took place. [1]

  1. ^ "Women's Equality Day". Public.navy.mil. Retrieved 2012-10-31. 

1972

1973

Symbol used for signs and buttons by ERA opponents

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

The 1980s

Education

Title IX

Main article: Title IX

Coeducation

One debate which developed in the United States during this time period revolved around the question of coeducation. Most men's colleges in the United States adopted coeducation, often by merging with women's colleges. In addition, some women's colleges adopted coeducation, while others maintained a single-sex student body.

Seven Sisters Colleges

Two of the Seven Sister colleges made transitions during and after the 1960s. The first, Radcliffe College, merged with Harvard University. Beginning in 1963, students at Radcliffe received Harvard diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard and joint commencement exercises began in 1970. The same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students experimentally and in 1972 full co-residence was instituted. The departments of athletics of both schools merged shortly thereafter. In 1977, Harvard and Radcliffe signed an agreement which put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. In 1999 Radcliffe College was dissolved and Harvard University assumed full responsibility over the affairs of female undergraduates. Radcliffe is now the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study in Women's Studies at Harvard University.

The second, Vassar College, declined an offer to merge with Yale University and instead became coeducational in 1969.

The remaining Seven Sisters decided against coeducation. Mount Holyoke College engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of David Truman over the issue of coeducation. On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision."[164] Smith College also made a similar decision in 1971.[165]

In 1969, Bryn Mawr College and Haverford College (then all male) developed a system of sharing residential colleges. When Haverford became coeducational in 1980, Bryn Mawr discussed the possibly of coeducation as well, but decided against it.[166] In 1983, Columbia University began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College for a merger along the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, but it continues to be independently governed). Wellesley College also decided against coeducation during this time.

Mississippi University for Women

In 1982, in a 5–4 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan that the Mississippi University for Women would be in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause if it denied admission to its nursing program on the basis of gender. Mississippi University for Women, the first public or government institution for women in the United States, changed its admissions policies and became coeducational after the ruling.[167]

In what was her first opinion written for the Supreme Court, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor stated, "In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification favoring one sex can be justified if it intentionally and directly assists members of the sex that is disproportionately burdened." She went on to point out that there are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men "lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-fulfilling prophecy".[168]

In the dissenting opinions, Justices Harry A. Blackmun, Warren E. Burger, Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and William H. Rehnquist suggested that the result of this ruling would be the elimination of publicly supported single-sex educational opportunities. This suggestion has proven to be accurate as there are no public women's colleges in the United States today and, as a result of United States v. Virginia, the last all-male public university in the United States, Virginia Military Institute, was required to admit women. The ruling did not require the university to change its name to reflect its coeducational status and it continues a tradition of academic and leadership development for women by providing liberal arts and professional education to women and men.[169]

Mills College

On May 3, 1990, the Trustees of Mills College announced that they had voted to admit male students.[170] This decision led to a two-week student and staff strike, accompanied by numerous displays of nonviolent protests by the students.[171][172] At one point, nearly 300 students blockaded the administrative offices and boycotted classes.[173] On May 18, the Trustees met again to reconsider the decision,[174] leading finally to a reversal of the vote.[175]

Other colleges

Pembroke College merged with Brown University. Sarah Lawrence College declined an offer to merge with Princeton University, becoming coeducational in 1969. Connecticut College also adopted coeducation during the late 1960s. Wells College, previously with a student body of women only, became co-educational in 2005. Douglass College, part of Rutgers University, was the last publicly funded women's only college until 2007 when it became coed.

Criticism

The historiography of the United States' second-wave feminism is criticized for failing to acknowledge and analyze the multiple sites of feminist insurgencies of women of color, silencing and ignoring the diverse pre-political and political developments that occurred during this time.[176] The dominant historical narratives of the feminist movement focuses on white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women and women's consciousness-raising groups, disregarding the experiences and contributions of women of color, working-class and lower-class women, as well as lesbian women. Chela Sandoval called the dominant narratives of the women's liberation movement "hegemonic feminism" because it essentializes the feminist historiography to an exclusive population of women, which assumes that all women experience the same oppressions as the white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women.[177] This restricting view ignores the oppressions women faced determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women of color feminisms that separated from the women's liberation movement, such as Black feminism, Africana womanism, and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California State University, Long Beach, which was founded by Anna NietoGomez, due to the Chicano Movement's sexism.

Many feminist scholars see the generational division of the second-wave as problematic. Second wavers are typically essentialized as the Baby Boomer generation, when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second-wave were born before World War II ended. This generational essentialism homogenizes the group that belongs to the wave and asserts that every person part of a certain demographic generation shared the same ideologies, because ideological differences were considered to be generational differences.[178]

Feminist scholars, particularly those from the late 20th and early 21st centuries to the present-day, have revisited diverse writings, oral histories, artwork, and artifacts of women of color, working-class women, and lesbians during the early 1960s to the early 1980s to decenter the dominant historical narratives of the second-wave of the women's liberation movement, allowing the scope of the historical understanding of feminist consciousness to expand and transform. By recovering histories that have been erased and overlooked, new forms of consciousness are created, establishing alternative registers of moral and political meaning and authority through what Maylei Blackwell termed "retrofitted memory."[179] She describes "retrofitted memory" as a form of countermemory that creates a transformative and fluid alternative archive that creates space for women's feminist consciousness within the hegemonic narratives which erase them.[179] By looking within the gaps and crevices of the second-wave, fragments of historical knowledge and memory are discovered, and new historical feminist subjects as well as new perspectives about the past emerge, forcing existing dominant histories that claim to represent a universal experience to be decentered and refocused.[180]

See also

References

  1. Sarah Gamble, ed. The Routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism (2001) p. 25
  2. Badran, Margot, Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences (Oxford, Eng.: Oneworld, 2009) p. 227
  3. Freedman, Marcia, Theorizing Israeli Feminism, 1970–2000, in Misra, Kalpana, & Melanie S. Rich, Jewish Feminism in Israel: Some Contemporary Perspectives (Hanover, N.H.: Univ. Press of New England (Brandeis Univ. Press) 2003) pp. 9–10
  4. "women's movement (political and social movement) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  5. 1 2 Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. (1995). Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91036-6.
  6. 1 2 Hansen, Karen Tranberg; Philipson, Ilene J. (1990). Women, class, and the feminist imagination: a socialist-feminist reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-630-X.
  7. 1 2 Gerhard, Jane F. (2001). Desiring revolution: second-wave feminism and the rewriting of American sexual thought, 1920 to 1982. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11204-1.
  8. 1 2 Leidholdt, Dorchen; Raymond, Janice G (1990). The Sexual liberals and the attack on feminism. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-037457-3.
  9. 1 2 Vance, Carole S. Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. Thorsons Publishers. ISBN 0-04-440593-6.
  10. Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 11&14. ISBN 9780292726901.
  11. Henry, Astrid (2012). "Chapter 6: Waves". In Orr, Catherine M.; Braithwaite, Ann; Lichtenstein, Diane. Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies (Kindle). New York: Routledge. p. 2071. ISBN 978-0415808316.
  12. Murray Knuttila, Introducing Sociology: A Critical Approach (4th ed. 2008 Oxford University Press)
  13. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, 1949.
  14. Moi, Toril, 'While we wait: The English translation of The Second Sex' in Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society vol. 27, no 4 (2002), pp. 1005–1035
  15. Tone, Andrea (2001). Devices & Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America. New York: Hill and Wang.
  16. "Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt; What Status For Women?". National Educational Television. Open Vault at WGBH. 1962. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
  17. Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  18. "President's Commission on the Status of Women 1961–1963". Womenshistory.about.com. 1961-12-14. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  19. Woo, Elaine (January 30, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters". Los Angeles Times.
  20. Laurie Ouellette (1999-05-01). "Inventing the Cosmo Girl: class identity and girl-style American dreams". Mcs.sagepub.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  21. DuBois and Dumenil. Through Women's Eyes: An American History Since 1865. (Bedford; St Martin's,New York)
  22. Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs. 1988. Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order. New Haven: Yale University Press
  23. Sweet, Corinne (February 7, 2006). "Betty Friedan". The Independent. London.
  24. CBCtv. "Betty Friedan: Women". YouTube. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  25. 1 2 3 David Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. p. 256. ISBN 141271009X.
  26. David Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. p. 257. ISBN 141271009X.
  27. NOW statement on Friedan's death
  28. 1 2 David Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. p. 150. ISBN 141271009X.
  29. David Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing. p. 377. ISBN 141271009X.
  30. Refuge House Resources - Marital Rape
  31. NY becomes 50th state with no-fault divorce - Newsday
  32. 1 2 A History of Women in the U.S. Military Accessed December 28, 2013
  33. "Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo". Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  34. 1 2 Dear Sisters: Dispatches From The Women's Liberation Movement - Rosalyn Fraad Baxandall, Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon - Google Books
  35. Heather Booth | Jewish Women's Archive
  36. 1 2 American Patriotism, American Protest: Social Movements Since the Sixties - Simon Hall - Google Books
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 On the Origins of Social Movements
  38. "Demographics of Working Moms". Mibn.org. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  39. Rampell, Catherine (February 6, 2009). "As Layoffs Surge, Women May Pass Men in Job Force". The New York Times. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  40. Fitzpatrick, Laura (April 20, 2010). "Why Do Women Still Earn Less Than Men?". Time.
  41. Men and Women of the Corporation: New Edition. "Kanter, ''Men and Women of the Corporation'', Basic Books, 1977". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  42. "Office of the White House, Council of Economic Advisors, 1998, IV. Discrimination". Clinton4.nara.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  43. "Levine, Report for Congress, "The Gender Gap and Pay Equity: Is Comparable Worth the Next Step?", Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 2003" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  44. 1 2 Arrow. Michelle. 2007. "It Has Become My Personal Anthem": "I Am Woman", Popular Culture and 1970s Feminism. Australian Feminist Studies 22: 213-230.
  45. 1 2 "Overview I Am Woman (1972) on ASO - Australia's audio and visual heritage online". Aso.gov.au. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  46. 1 2 "The Anthem and the Angst", Sunday Magazine, Melbourne Sunday Herald Sun/Sydney Sunday Telegraph, June 15, 2003, Page 16.
  47. 1 2 Betty Friedan, "It Changed My Life" (1976), pp. 257
  48. 1 2 "Reddy to sing for the rent", Sunday Telegraph (Sydney), November 13, 1981
  49. 1 2 Helen still believes, it's just that she has to pay the rent too", by John Burns of the Daily Express, reprinted in Melbourne Herald, December 16, 1981
  50. 1 2 Chicago Sun-Times http://southtownstar.suntimes.com/southtown/columns/vickroy/x07-dvy2.htm. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  51. Arrow, Michelle. 2007.
  52. "National Organization for Women (Informational Paper)". Learningtogive.org. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  53. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "CWLU Chronology: A timeline for Second Wave Feminism". Uic.edu. 1968-04-04. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  54. Archived January 14, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
  55. Addison, Heather; Goodwin-Kelly, Mary Kate; Roth, Elaine (2009). Motherhood misconceived: representing the maternal in U.S. film. SUNY Press. p. 29
  56. National Organization for Women. "Honoring NOW's Founders and Pioneers". Now.org. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  57. "IQ - Use of IQ in the United States legal system". Iq-tests.eu. 2002-06-20. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  58. "jfsla.org". Jewish Family Service of Los Angeles. 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2012-06-05.
  59. Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo"
  60. "Griswold v. Connecticut". .law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  61. "Special Collections & Archives – University Library – Georgia State University". Library.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  62. "Women and Marxism: Marxists Internet Archive". Marxists.org. 1940-08-20. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  63. Wright, Susan (2005), The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Landmark Antidiscrimination Legislation, The Rosen Publishing Group
  64. 1 2 3 4 "Feminism Friday: The origins of the word "sexism"". Finallyfeminism101.wordpress.com. October 19, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
  65. "Information about NOW". Now.org. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  66. 1 2 TEXT_Allen, Ashley
  67. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 "BBC Radio 4 - Woman's Hour - Women's History Timeline: 1960–1969". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  68. Winkiel, Laura, The "Sweet Assassin" and the Performative Politics of SCUM Manifesto, in Smith, Patricia Juliana, ed., The Queer Sixties (N.Y.: Routledge, 1999 (ISBN 0-415-92169-4)), p. [62] (author, PhD from English department, University of Notre Dame, was research fellow, Center for the Humanities, Wesleyan University).
  69. Castro, Ginette, trans. Elizabeth Loverde-Bagwell, American Feminism: A Contemporary History (N.Y.: N.Y. Univ. Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-8147-1448-X)), p. 264 (Chronology) (trans. from Radioscopie du féminisme américain (Paris, France: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1984) (French)) (author prof. Eng. lang. & culture, Univ. of Bordeaux III, France).
  70. "Executive Orders Disposition Tables". Archives.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  71. "The Women's Liberation Movement". Jofreeman.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  72. "TIME Magazine Cover: The Pill". Time.com. April 7, 1967. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
  73. Archived October 26, 2004, at the Wayback Machine.
  74. "Feminist Theory". Msu.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  75. Maren Lockwood Carden, The New Feminist Movement (1974, Russell Sage Foundation)
  76. Echols, Alice. Daring to be Bad: Radical Feminism in America
  77. "Notes from the First Year - Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement". Library.duke.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
  78. Feminist Revolution, p. 147–148
  79. "National Welfare Rights Organization (1966–1975) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed". The Black Past. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  80. http://www.jofreeman.com/photos/MissAm1968.html. Retrieved January 17, 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  81. Kesselman, Amy (1973-01-01). "Our Gang of Four". Uic.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  82. "Gale - Free Resources - Women's History - Biographies - Coretta Scott King". Gale.cengage.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  83. "Milestones in the History of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: 1968". Eeoc.gov. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  84. 1 2 3 "Sisterhood Is Powerful - The Influential Feminist Anthology Sisterhood Is Powerful". Womenshistory.about.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  85. "Notes from the First Year - Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement". Library.duke.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
  86. Rights, Not Roses: Unions and the Rise of Working-Class Feminism, 1945-80 - Dennis Arthur Deslippe - Google Książki. Books.google.pl. 1975-05-09. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  87. Fox, Margalit (January 7, 2010). "Mary Daly, a Leader in Feminist Theology, Dies at 81". The New York Times.
  88. Greer, Germaine, The Female Eunuch (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1st ed. in U.S. 1971, © 1970 & 1971), p. 306 ("The summer ... was ... momentous for the women's movement ... [partly] because Valerie Solanas shot Andy Warhol.... S.C.U.M. ... was big news, battling ... for the front page.").
  89. Willis, "Radical Feminism and Feminist Radicalism", p. 124.
  90. "National Abortion Rights Action League. Records, 1968–1976: A Finding Aid". Oasis.lib.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  91. P. T. Clough (1994)The Sociological Quarterly, vol 35 no 3, page 473 The Hybrid Criticism of Patriarchy: Rereading Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics"
  92. Wilde, W H; Hooton, Joy and Andrews, Barry (1994) [1985]. The Oxford companion to Australian Literature (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. p. 271. ISBN 0-19-553381-X. "... the book became almost a sacred text for the international women's liberation movement of the 1970s, notwithstanding sporadic criticism of aspects of its ideology from some feminists."
  93. "Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.". Scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  94. Jacobs, Alexandra (July 17, 2005). "A Feminist Classic Gets a Makeover". The New York Times.
  95. "Curtis Publishing Company (Saturday Evening Post & Ladies Home Journal)". Scripophily.stores.yahoo.net. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  96. Chronology of Women's History - Kirstin Olsen - Google Books. Books.google.pl. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  97. Archived August 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  98. Peter Bondanella; Julia Conway Bondanella; Jody Robin Shiffman (1 January 2001). Cassell Dictionary of Italian Literature. A&C Black. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-304-70464-4.
  99. The Black Woman: An Anthology. "The Black Woman: An Anthology (9780743476973): Toni Cade Bambara, Eleanor W Traylor: Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  100. "Women's Strike for Equality (American history) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. 1970-08-26. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  101. Feminists who Changed America, 1963-1975 - Google Books
  102. Encyclopedia of Women's History in America - Kathryn Cullen-DuPont - Google Książki. Books.google.pl. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  103. Rosenberg, Rosalind. Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century. New York: Hill and Wang, 1992.
  104. "National Right to Life Convention kicks off in Jacksonville". Florida Independent. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  105. "Title X: Three Decades of Accomplishment". Guttmacher.org. 2001-02-01. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  106. "Click - The Ongoing Feminist Revolution". www.cliohistory.org. Retrieved 2016-03-09.
  107. "The Supreme Court Historical Society - Learning Center - Women's Rights". Supremecourthistory.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  108. Rea, Charlotte, Women's Theatre Groups in The Drama Review, vol. 16, no 2, June 1972, pg 87.
  109. Lowell, Sondra, "New Feminist Theater," Ms. Magazine, Aug. 1972. p. 17-21.
  110. Johnston, Laurie, "Sexism in Theater Can Be a Boon: At the Drama Desk Luncheon," Theater Section, New York Times, February 8, 1973.
  111. "National Women's History Project". Nwhp.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  112. "Ms magazine website". About Ms. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
  113. Steinem, Gloria. "Who is Gloria?". Gloria Steinem Official Website. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
  114. 1 2 "History". Equalrightsamendment.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  115. "Eisenstadt v. Baird | The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law". Oyez.org. 1972-03-22. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  116. "Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972". Justice.gov. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  117. "History | National Women's Political Caucus". Nwpc.org. 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  118. "Gloria Steinem Addresses the Women of America – History.com Audio". History.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  119. "> news". WTT. 1943-11-22. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  120. "Roe v. Wade". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  121. "We Are Woman: Women's History". Wearewoman.us. 2012-08-18. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  122. Rowe, Mary, "Saturn's Rings," a study of the minutiae of sexism which maintain discrimination and inhibit affirmative action results in corporations and non-profit institutions; published in Graduate and Professional Education of Women, American Association of University Women, 1974, pp. 1–9. "Saturn's Rings II" is a 1975 updating of the original, with racist and sexist incidents from 1974 and 1975. Revised and republished as "The Minutiae of Discrimination: The Need for Support," in Forisha, Barbara and Barbara Goldman, Outsiders on the Inside, Women in Organizations, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1981, Ch. 11, pp. 155–171. ISBN 978-0-13-645382-6.
  123. http://www.ox.ac.uk/about/oxford-people/women-at-oxford
  124. "Equal Credit Opportunity Act - Civil Rights". Civilrights.uslegal.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  125. "FindLaw | Cases and Codes". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  126. 1 2 "Top Five Unique and Interesting Facts About Betty Ford - Yahoo! Voices". voices.yahoo.com. 2006-07-14. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  127. Eleanor Smeal (2011-07-09). "Betty Ford, champion of women's rights - CNN". Articles.cnn.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  128. "NWHM National Coalition Exhibit". Nwhm.org. 2004-01-01. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  129. "Timeline Index". UFCW. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  130. "Archived: Women's Educational Equity". .ed.gov. 1999-09-30. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  131. 1 2 Revolution in the Garden. "Revolution in the Garden (9781596370388): Dell Williams, Lynn Vannucci: Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
  132. 1 2 Hd Feminism 2ed(52) - Janet K. Boles, Janet K. Boles Diane Long Hoeveler - Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
  133. 1 2 Archived October 1, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  134. The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology - Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  135. "FindLaw | Cases and Codes". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  136. "The Feminist Chronicles, 1953–1993 – 1975 - Feminist Majority Foundation". Feminist.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  137. 1 2 "Against Our Will". Susanbrownmiller.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  138. 1 2 "WOMEN OF THE YEAR: Great Changes, New Chances, Tough Choices". Time. January 5, 1976. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  139. "Freedom On Film :: Civil Rights In Georgia". Civilrights.uga.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  140. "The African American Experience". Testaae.greenwood.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  141. ERIC PACEPublished: October 24, 2003 (2003-10-24). "Judy H. Mello Is Dead at 60; Executive of Women's Bank - New York Times". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  142. 1 2 3 4 Students 'Take Back the Night' on Columbia streets – The Maneater
  143. "Historical Timeline of Reproductive Rights in the United States". Trustblackwomen.org. 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  144. 1 2 "Barbara Jordan Biography - Facts, Birthday, Life Story". Biography.com. 1936-02-21. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  145. 1 2 "Women of the CBC > Barbara Jordan Biography". Avoiceonline.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  146. "Organization of Pan Asian American Women (American organization) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  147. "The International Tribunal on Crimes Against Women". everything2.com. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  148. "Wisconsin Public School Observance Days". Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  149. "Canadian Human Rights Act". Laws-lois.justice.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 2012-10-29. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  150. "NATIONAL WOMEN'S CONFERENCE, 1977 | The Handbook of Texas Online| Texas State Historical Association (TSHA)". Tshaonline.org. 1977-11-27. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  151. "NACAW.ORG - Home Page". Nacaw-us.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  152. "Factsheets : Women's Airforce Service Pilots (WASP)". Afhso.af.mil. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  153. 1 2 State of Washington v. Wanrow | Center for Constitutional Rights
  154. http://faculty.law.miami.edu/zfenton/documents/Wanrow2.pdf
  155. The Spokesman-Review - Google News Archive Search
  156. "Oregon v. Rideout". eNotes.com. 1978-12-27. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  157. "The Pregnancy Discrimination Act". Eeoc.gov. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  158. "BBC History - Margaret Thatcher". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  159. Badran, Margot, Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences (Oxford, Eng.: Oneworld, 2009 (ISBN 978-1-85168-556-1)), p. 227 (author sr. fellow, Ctr. for Muslim Christian Understanding, Georgetown Univ., U.S., & fellow, Woodrow Wilson International Ctr. for Scholars, Washington, D.C.).
  160. Freedman, Marcia, Theorizing Israeli Feminism, 1970–2000, in Misra, Kalpana, & Melanie S. Rich, Jewish Feminism in Israel: Some Contemporary Perspectives (Hanover, N.H.: Univ. Press of New England (Brandeis Univ. Press) (Brandeis Ser. on Jewish Women), 1st ed. 2003 (ISBN 1-58465-325-6)), pp. 9–10 (author taught philosophy, Haifa Univ., & women's studies, Oranim Teacher's Seminary, 2d-wave feminist leader, & cofounder Women's Party, editor Kalpana Misra assoc. prof. pol. sci., Univ. of Tulsa, & editor Melanie S. Rich psychologist & chair, Partnership 2000 Women's Forum).
  161. "Canadian Charter Of Rights And Freedoms". Efc.ca. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  162. Jon Henley in Paris (2005-05-11). "France tries again to give women equal pay | World news". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  163. Linda N. Edwards. "Equal Employment Opportunities in Japan: A View From The West". Jstor.org. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
  164. "Mount Holyoke:A Detailed History". mtholyoke.edu.
  165. "Smith Tradition". smith.edu. Archived from the original on 2007-01-01.
  166. "A Brief history of Bryn Mawr College". brynmawr.edu.
  167. "Mississippi Public Universities - Mississippi's University System". Mississippi.edu. 1925-09-15. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  168. Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718 (1982)
  169. MUW - Planning and Institutional Effectiveness Archived October 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  170. "Venerable School for Women Is Going Co-ed". The New York Times. 1990-05-04.
  171. "Mills Students Protesting Admission of Men". The New York Times. 1990-05-05.
  172. Bishop, Katherine (1990-05-06). "Disbelieving and Defiant, Students Vow: No Men". The New York Times. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  173. "Protest Continues at College Over Decision to Admit Men". The New York Times. 1990-05-08.
  174. "College to Reconsider Decision to Admit Men". The New York Times. 1990-05-12.
  175. Bishop, Katherine (1990-05-19). "Women's College Rescinds Its Decision to Admit Men". The New York Times. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
  176. Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement. Austin: University of Texas press. pp. 11&14. ISBN 978-0292726901.
  177. Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0292726901.
  178. Henry, Astrid (2012). "Chapter 6: Waves". In Orr, Catherine M.; Braithwaite, Ann; Lichtenstein, Diane. Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies (Kindle). New York: Routledge. pp. 2134 & 2180. ISBN 978-0415808316.
  179. 1 2 Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0292726901.
  180. Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0292726901.

Further reading

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/17/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.