Pakistan

Coordinates: 30°N 70°E / 30°N 70°E

Islamic Republic of Pakistan اسلامی جمہوریہ پاكستان (Urdu) Islāmī Jumhūriyah Pākistān[1]
Flag Emblem
Motto: Īmān, Ittiḥād, Naẓm ایمان، اتحاد، نظم (Urdu) "Faith, Unity, Discipline" [2]
Anthem: Qaumī Tarānah قومی ترانہ "The National Anthem"[3]
Area controlled by Pakistan shown in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled region shown in light green.
Capital		Islamabad 33°40′N 73°10′E / 33.667°N 73.167°E
Largest city		Karachi 24°51′36″N 67°00′36″E / 24.86000°N 67.01000°E
Official languages		Urdu[4][5][6][7][8] English
Recognised national languages		Urdu
Regional languages		Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Kashmiri, Brahui, Shina, Balti, Khowar, Burushaski Yidgha, Dameli, Kalasha, Gawar-Bati, Domaaki[9][10]
Ethnic groups (2016)		44.68% Punjabis 15.42% Pashtuns 14.1% Sindhis 8.38% Sariakis 7.57% Muhajirs 3.57% Balochis 6.28% Others[11]
Religion		96.4% Islam 3.6% Others[11]
Demonym		Pakistani
Government		Federal parliamentary constitutional republic
•	President	Mamnoon Hussain
•	Prime Minister	Nawaz Sharif
•	Chairman Senate	Raza Rabbani
•	Chief Justice	Anwar Zaheer Jamali
Legislature		Majlis-e-Shoora
•	Upper house	Senate
•	Lower house	National Assembly
Independence from the United Kingdom
•	Conception[12]	29 December 1930
•	Declaration	28 January 1933
•	Resolution	23 March 1940
•	Dominion	14 August 1947
•	Islamic Republic	23 March 1956
Area
•	Total	881,913 km^2[lower-alpha 1][14] (36th) 307,374 sq mi
•	Water (%)	3.1
Population
•	2016 estimate	201,995,540[11] (6th)
•	Density	260.8/km^2 (55th) 675.6/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2016 estimate
•	Total	$984.205 billion[15] (26th)
•	Per capita	$5,084[15] (136th)
GDP (nominal)		2015 estimate
•	Total	$270.961 billion[15] (42nd)
•	Per capita	$1,427.08[15] (153rd)
Gini (2008)		30.0[16] medium
HDI (2014)		0.538[17] low · 147th
Currency		Pakistani rupee (₨) (PKR)
Time zone		PST (UTC+5^b)
Drives on the		left[18]
Calling code		+92
ISO 3166 code		PK
Internet TLD		.pk
Website www.pakistan.gov.pk
^a.	See also Pakistani English.:^α
^b.	See also Daylight saving time in Pakistan.

Pakistan (ⁱ/ˈpækᵻstæn/ or ⁱ/pɑːkᵻˈstɑːn/) (Urdu: پاکستان), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people.^[11] It is the 36th largest country in the world in terms of area with an area covering 881,913 km² (340,509 sq mi). Pakistan has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast respectively. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and also shares a maritime border with Oman.

The territory that now constitutes Pakistan is considered a cradle of civilization^{[19][20][21][22][23][24][25]} which was previously home to several ancient cultures, including the Mehrgarh of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures, including Hindus, Indo-Greeks, Muslims, Turco-Mongols, Afghans and Sikhs. The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Alexander of Macedonia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Delhi Sultanate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire.

Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries as it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam.^[26] As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the subcontinent's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of the Subcontinent where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. An ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.

Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of four provinces and four federal territories. It is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similar variation in its geography and wildlife. A regional and middle power,^[27][28] Pakistan has the sixth largest standing armed forces in the world and is also a nuclear power as well as a declared nuclear-weapons state, being the only nation in the Muslim world, and the second in South Asia, to have that status. It has a semi-industrialised economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector, its economy is the 26th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and 45th largest in terms of nominal GDP and is also characterized among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world.^[29][30]

The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of both military rule and democracy, as of 2008, political instability and conflicts with neighbouring India. The country continues to face challenging problems, including illiteracy, healthcare and corruption. Though it has witnessed a reduction in poverty^[31] and reduction in terrorism.^[32] Pakistan maintains strategic endowments such as a border with China, India, Iran and direct connection to the Arabian Sea. It is strategically placed as it straddles the Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia, in terms of development potential Pakistan has made substantial progress in reducing poverty giving it the second lowest headcount poverty rate in South Asia.^[33] The nation has recently witnessed a rapid expansion of its prosperous middle class, the 18th largest worldwide.^[34] Pakistan's stock exchange is Asia's highest performing stock market and, as of 2016, is part of the MSCI's emerging markets index.^[35][36] It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Next Eleven Economies, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, ECO, UfC, D8, Cairns Group, Kyoto Protocol, ICCPR, RCD, UNCHR, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Group of Eleven, CPFTA, Group of 24, the G20 developing nations, ECOSOC, founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, SAARC and CERN.^[37]

Etymology

The name Pakistan literally means "land of the pure" in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto^[38] while the suffix -stān is a Persian word meaning place of, cognate with the Sanskrit word sthāna (Devanagari: स्थान [st̪ʰaːnə]).^[39]

It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in his pamphlet Now or Never,^[40] using it as an acronym ("thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN") referring to the names of the five northern regions of the British Raj: Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan.^[41][42][43] The letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name.^[44]

History

Early and medieval age

Standing Buddha from Gandhara

Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.^[45] The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab.^[46] The Indus region, which covers most of present day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic Mehrgarh^[47] and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation (2800–1800 BC) at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.^[48][49]

The Vedic Civilization (1500–500 BC), characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, which would become well established in the region.^[50][51] Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre.^[52] The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, now Taxila in Punjab.^[47] Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Persian Achaemenid Empire around 519 BC), Alexander the Great's empire in 326 BC^[53] and the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great until 185 BC.^[47] The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BC) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BC), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.^[47][54] Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world.^{[55][56][57][58]}

The Medieval period (642–1219 AD) is defined by the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam.^[59] The Rai Dynasty (489–632 AD) of Sindh, at its zenith, ruled this region and the surrounding territories.^[60] The Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire that under Dharampala and Devapala stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan.

The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD.^{[61][62][63][64][65]} The Pakistan government's official chronology identifies this as the point where the "foundation" of Pakistan was laid.^[61][66][67] This conquest set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 AD), the Ghorid Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 AD). The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.^[68] In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emperors.^[69] By the early 18th century, the increasing European influence slowly disintegrated the empire as the lines between commercial and political dominance were increasingly blurred.^[69]

Edwin Lord Weeks illustration of an open-air restaurant near Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore.

During this time, the English East India Company had established coastal outposts.^[69] Control over the seas, greater resources, technology, and military force projection by East India Company of British Empire led it to increasingly flex its military muscle; a factor that was crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the subcontinent by 1765 and sidelining the European competitors.^[70] Expanding access beyond Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of region by the 1820s.^[69] To many historians, this marked the starting of region's colonial period.^[69] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.^[69] Such reforms included the enforcement of English Education Act in 1835 and the introduction of the Indian Civil Service (ICS).^[71] Traditional madrasahs – primary institutions of higher learning for Muslims in the subcontinent – were no longer supported by the English Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their financial endowment.^[72]

Colonial period

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–98), whose vision formed the basis of Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) served as Pakistan's first Governor-General and the leader of the Pakistan Movement

The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 18th century enabled the Sikh Empire's influence to control larger areas until the British East-India Company gained ascendancy over the Indian subcontinent.^[73] The rebellion in 1857 (or Sepoy mutiny) was the region's major armed struggle against the British Empire and Queen Victoria.^[74] Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam created a major rift in British India; thus instigating racially motivated religious violence in India.^[75] The language controversy further escalated the tensions between Hindus and Muslims.^[76] The Hindu renaissance witnessed the awakening of intellectualism in traditional Hinduism and saw the emergence of more assertive influence in the social and political spheres in British India.^[77][78] Intellectual movement to counter the Hindu renaissance was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan who helped founding the All-India Muslim League in 1901 and envisioned as well as advocated for the two-nation theory.^[73] In contrast to the Indian Congress's anti-British efforts, the Muslim League was a pro-British whose political program inherited the British values that would shape Pakistan's future civil society.^[79][80] In events during World War I, British Intelligence foiled an anti-English conspiracy involving the nexus of Congress and the German Empire.^[81] The largely non-violent independence struggle led by the Indian Congress engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience in the 1920s and 1930s against the British Empire.^[82][83][84]

Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home during the Partition of India. During the partition between 200,000 to 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.^[85]

The Muslim League slowly rose to mass popularity in the 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. In his presidential address of 29 December 1930, Allama Iqbal called for "the amalgamation of North-West Muslim-majority Indian states" consisting of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan.^[86] Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, greatly espoused the two-nation theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution.^[73] In World War II, Jinnah and British educated founding fathers in the Muslim League supported the United Kingdom's war efforts, countering opposition against it whilst working towards Sir Syed's vision.^[87]

The 1946 elections had resulted in the Muslim League winning 90 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. Thus the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite which the Muslim League won.^[88] This victory was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural peasantry of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied the Muslim League's claim of being the sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.^[88] The British had no alternative except to take Jinnah's views into account as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson of India's Muslims. However the British did not desire India to be partitioned and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan.^[89]

As the cabinet mission failed in India, the Great Britain announced the intentions to end its raj in India in 1946–47.^[90] Nationalists in British India – including Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad of Congress, Jinnah of Muslim League, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs—agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence in June 1947.^[91] As the United Kingdom agreed upon partitioning of India in 1947, the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic Calendar) in amalgamating the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India.^[84] It comprised the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh; thus forming Pakistan.^[73][91]

In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and 2,000,000^[92][93][94] people were killed in the retributive genocide between the religions ^[95][96] while 50,000 Musllim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women also experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.^[97] Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India. It was the largest mass migration in human history.^{[98][99][100]} Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to the First Kashmir War in 1948.^[101][102]

Independence and modern Pakistan

The American CIA film on Pakistan made in 1950 examines the history and geography of Pakistan.

"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place or worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of the State."

—Muhammad Ali Jinnah's first speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan^[103]

After independence and the partition of India in 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the President of Muslim League, became nation's first Governor-General as well as first President-Speaker of the Parliament.^[104] Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed upon appointing Liaquat Ali Khan, the secretary-general of the party, the nation's first Prime Minister. With dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations, independent Pakistan had two British monarchs before it became a republic.^[104]

Maulānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-Islām in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played a pivotal role in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an explicit declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah in Pakistan.^[105]

A significant result of the efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. The Objectives Resolution, which Liaquat Ali Khan called the second most important step in Pakistan's history, declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". The Objectives Resolution has been incorporated as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.^[105]

Democracy was stalled by the martial law enforced by President Iskander Mirza who was replaced by army chief, General Ayub Khan. Forming presidential system in 1962, the country experienced exceptional growth until a second war with India in 1965 which led to economic downfall and wide-scale public disapproval in 1967.^[106][107] Consolidating the control from Ayub Khan in 1969, President Yahya Khan had to deal with a devastating cyclone which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan.^[108]

Signing of Tashkent Declaration to end hostilities with India in 1965 in Tashkent, USSR, by President Ayub alongside Bhutto (center) and Aziz Ahmed (left).

In 1970, Pakistan held its first democratic elections since independence, that were meant to mark a transition from military rule to democracy, but after the East Pakistani Awami League won against Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP); Yahya Khan and military establishment refused to hand over power.^[109][110] Operation Searchlight, a military crackdown on the Bengali nationalist movement, led to a declaration of independence and the waging of a war of liberation by the Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan, with support from India.^[110][111] However, in West Pakistan the conflict was described as a civil war as opposed to War of Liberation.^[112]

Independent researchers think that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the figure of dead at three million,^[113] a number which is now universally regarded as excessively inflated.^[114] Some academics such as Rudolph Russel and Rounaq Jahan accused both sides^[115] of genocide whereas others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.^[116] Preemptive strikes on India by the Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines, in response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, sparked the conventional war in 1971 which witnessed the Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.^[110]

With Pakistan surrendering in the war, Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President; the country worked towards promulgating constitution and putting the country on roads of democracy. Democratic rule resumed from 1972 to 1977– an era of self-consciousness, intellectual leftism, nationalism, and nationwide reconstruction.^[117] During this period, Pakistan embarked on ambitiously developing the nuclear deterrence in 1972 in a view to prevent any foreign invasion; the country's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated, also the same year.^[118][119] Accelerated in response to first nuclear test by India in 1974, this crash program completed in 1979.^[119] Democracy ended with a military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978. From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia.^[120] While consolidating the nuclear development, increasing Islamization,^[121] and the rise of homegrown conservative philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidize and distribute U.S. resources to factions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in communist Afghanistan.^[122][123]

President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the country's first female Prime Minister. The Pakistan Peoples Party followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N), and over the next decade whose two leaders fought for power, alternating in office while the country's situation worsened; economic indicators fell sharply, in contrast to the 1980s. This period is marked by prolonged stagflation, instability, corruption, nationalism, geopolitical rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing-right wing ideologies.^[124][125] As PML(N) secured a supermajority in elections in 1997, Sharif authorised the nuclear testings (See:Chagai-I and Chagai-II), as a retaliation to second nuclear tests ordered by India, led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in May 1998.^[126]

President Bush meets with President Musharraf in Islamabad during his 2006 visit to Pakistan.

Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999, and a turbulence in civic-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf took over through a bloodless coup d'état.^[127][128] Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008— a period of enlightenment, social liberalism, extensive economic reforms,^[129] and direct involvement in the U.S.-led war on terrorism. When the National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007, the new elections were called by the Election Commission.^[130] After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured largest votes in the elections of 2008, appointing party member Yousaf Raza Gillani as Prime Minister.^[131] Threatened with facing impeachment, President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari.^{[132][133][134]} Clashes with the judicature prompted Gillani's disqualification from the Parliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012.^[135] By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to ~$67.93 billion,^[136][137] thousands of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians.^[138] The general election held in 2013 saw the PML(N) almost achieve a supermajority, following which Nawaz Sharif became elected as the Prime Minister, returning to the post for the third time after fourteen years, in a democratic transition.^[139]

Government and politics

Parliament House

Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic with Islam as the state religion.^[140] The first set was adopted in 1956 but suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958 who replaced it with the second set in 1962.^[84] Complete and comprehensive Constitution was adopted in 1973—suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985—is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of the current government.^[141] The Pakistani military establishment has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's political history.^[84] There were military coups which resulted in imposition of martial law and military commanders continued governing as de-facto presidents from 1958–1971, 1977–1988, and 1999–2008.^[142] As of now, Pakistan has a multi-party parliamentary system with clear division of powers and responsibilities between branches of government. The first successful demonstrative transaction was held in May 2013. Politics in Pakistan is centered and dominated by the homegrown conceive social philosophy, consisting the ideas of socialism, conservatism, and the third way. As of the general elections held in 2013, the three main dominated political parties in the country: the centre-right conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N (PML-N); the centre-left socialist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP); and the centrist and third-way Pakistan Movement for Justice (PTI) led by cricketer Imran Khan.

• Head of State: The President who is elected by an Electoral College is the ceremonial head of the state and is the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces (with Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee as its principal military adviser), but military appointments and key confirmations in the armed forces are made by the Prime Minister after reviewing the reports on their merit and performances. Almost all appointed officers in the judicature, military, chairman joint chiefs and joint staff, and legislatures require the executive confirmation from the Prime Minister, whom the President must consult, by law. However, the powers to pardon and grant clemency vest with the President of Pakistan.
• Legislative: The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate (upper house) and a 342-member National Assembly (lower house). Members of the National Assembly are elected through the first-past-the-post system under universal adult suffrage, representing electoral districts known as National Assembly constituencies. According to the constitution, the 70 seats reserved for women and religious minorities are allocated to the political parties according to their proportional representation. Senate members are elected by provincial legislators, with all of provinces have equal representation.

Prime Minister's Secretariat

• Executive: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority rule party or a coalition in the National Assembly— the lower house. The Prime Minister serves as the head of government and is designated to exercise as the country's chief executive. The Prime Minister is responsible for appointing a cabinet consisting of ministers and advisers as well as running the government operations, taking and authorizing executive decisions, appointments and recommendations that require executive confirmation of the Prime Minister.
• Provincial governments: Each of the four province has a similar system of government, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister. Chief Ministers oversees the provincial governments and head the provincial cabinet, it is common in Pakistan to have different ruling parties or coalitions in each provinces. The provincial assemblies have power to make laws and approve provincial budget which is commonly presented by the provincial finance minister every fiscal year. Provincial governors who play role as the ceremonial head of province are appointed by the President.^[141]

Supreme Court of Pakistan

• Judicature: The judiciary of Pakistan is a hierarchical system with two classes of courts: the superior (or higher) judiciary and the subordinate (or lower) judiciary. The Chief Justice of Pakistan is the chief judge who oversees the judicature's court system at all levels of command. The superior judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Federal Shariat Court and five High Courts, with the Supreme Court at the apex. The Constitution of Pakistan entrusts the superior judiciary with the obligation to preserve, protect and defend the constitution. Neither the Supreme Court nor a High Court may exercise jurisdiction in relation to Tribal Areas, except otherwise provided for. The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan have separate court systems.

Foreign relations of Pakistan

Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan) with US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. U.S-Pak relations during the cold war

As the Muslim world's second most populous nation-state (after Indonesia) and its only nuclear power state, Pakistan has an important role in the international community.^[143][144] With a semi-agricultural and semi-industrialized economy, its foreign policy determines its standard of interactions for its organizations, corporations and individual citizens.^[145][146] Its geostrategic intentions were explained by Jinnah in a broadcast message in 1947, which is featured in a prominent quotation on the homepage of Pakistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs website: "The foundation of our foreign policy is friendship with all nations across the globe."^[147]

Since then, Pakistan has attempted to balance its relations with foreign nations.^{[148][149][150]} A non-signatory party of the Treaty on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Pakistan is an influential member of the IAEA.^[151] In recent events, Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile material, arguing that the "treaty would target Pakistan specifically."^[152] In the 20th century, Pakistan's nuclear deterrence program focused on countering India's nuclear ambitions in the region, and nuclear tests by India eventually led Pakistan to reciprocate the event to maintain geopolitical balance as becoming a nuclear power.^[153] Currently, Pakistan maintains a policy of credible minimum deterrence, calling its program vital nuclear deterrence against foreign aggression.^[154][155]

Located in strategic and geopolitical corridor of the world's major maritime oil supply lines, communication fiber optics, Pakistan has proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.^[156] Pakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and is a major non-NATO ally of the United States in the war against terrorism— a status achieved in 2004.^[157] Pakistan's foreign policy and geostrategy mainly focus on economy and security against threats to its national identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of close relations with other Muslim countries.^[158] Briefing on country's foreign policy in 2004, the Pakistani senator reportedly explains: "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."^[159] Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations and has a Permanent Representative to represent Pakistan's policy in international politics.^[160] Pakistan has lobbied for the concept of "Enlightened Moderation" in the Muslim world.^[161][162] Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Nations,^[163] the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO)^[164][165] and the G20 developing nations.^[166] Pakistan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel;^[167] nonetheless some Israeli citizens have visited the country on a tourist visas.^[168] Based on mutual cooperation, the security exchange have taken place between two countries using Turkey as a communication conduit.^[169] Despite Pakistan being the only country in the world that has not established a diplomatic relations with Armenia, the Armenian community still resides in Pakistan.^[170]

Pakistan's incumbent Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif with his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi.

Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim World is a vital factor in Pakistan's foreign policy.^[171] Pakistan was the first country to have established diplomatic relations with China and relations continues to be warm since China's war with India in 1962.^[172] In the 1960s–1980s, Pakistan greatly helped China in reaching out to the world's major countries and helped facilitate U.S. President Nixon's state visit to China.^[172] Despite the change of governments in Pakistan, variations in the regional and global situation, China policy in Pakistan continues to be dominant factor at all time.^[172] In return, China is Pakistan's largest trading partner and economic cooperation have reached high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistan's infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at Gwadar. Sino-Pak friendly relations touched new heights as both the countries signed 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) in 2015 for cooperation in different fields.^{[173] [174][175][176]} Both countries have signed the Free Trade Agreement in the 2000s, and Pakistan continues to serve as China's communication bridge in the Muslim World.^[177]

Pakistan PM Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan. Pakistan, today, hosts China's largest embassy.^[178]

Because of difficulties in relations with its geopolitical rival India, Pakistan maintains close political relations with Turkey and Iran.^[179] Saudi Arabia also maintains a respected position in Pakistan's foreign policy, and both countries has been a focal point in Pakistan's foreign policy.^[179] The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of rift; three of their four wars were over this territory.^[180] Due to ideological differences, Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union in the 1950s and during Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s, Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the United States.^[159][181] Relations with Russia have greatly improved since 1999 and cooperation with various sectors have increased between Russia and Pakistan.^[182] Pakistan has had "on-and-off" relations with the United States. A close ally of the United States in the Cold war, Pakistan's relation with the United States relations soured in the 1990s when the U.S. imposed sanctions because of Pakistan's secretive nuclear development.^[183] Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a close ally with the United States on the issue of counter-terrorism in the regions of the Middle East and South Asia, with the US supporting the latter with aid money and weapons.^[184][185]

The United States-led war on terrorism led initially to an improvement in the relationship, but it was strained by a divergence of interests and resulting mistrust during the war in Afghanistan and by issues related to terrorism.^{[186][187][188][189]} Since 1948, there has been an ongoing, and at times fluctuating, violent conflict in the southwestern province of Balochistan between various Baloch separatist groups, who seek greater political autonomy, and the central government of Pakistan.^[190]

In 2016 the official press agency of the People's Republic of China announced that the state will set up an anti-terrorism alliance with Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.^[191]

Administrative divisions

Administrative Division	Capital	Population
Balochistan	Quetta	7,914,000
Punjab	Lahore	101,000,000
Sindh	Karachi	42,400,000
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa	Peshawar	28,000,000
Gilgit–Baltistan	Gilgit	1,800,000
FATA		3,176,331
Azad Kashmir	Muzaffarabad	4,567,982
Islamabad Capital Territory	Islamabad	1,151,868

A federal parliamentary republic state, Pakistan is a federation that comprises four provinces: Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan.^[192] and four territories: the Tribal belt, Gilgit–Baltistan, Islamabad Capital Territory, and Kashmir. The Government of Pakistan exercises the de facto jurisdiction over the Frontier Regions and the western parts of the Kashmir Regions, which are organised into the separate political entities Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (formerly Northern Areas). In 2009, the constitutional assignment (the Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order) awarded the Gilgit–Baltistan a semi-provincial status, giving it self-government.^[193]

The local government system consists of a three-tier system of districts, tehsils and union councils, with an elected body at each tier.^[194] There are about 130 districts altogether, of which Azad Kashmir has ten^[195] and Gilgit–Baltistan seven.^[196] The Tribal Areas comprise seven tribal agencies and six small frontier regions detached from neighbouring districts.^[197]

Clickable map of the four provinces and four federal territories of Pakistan.

Law enforcement is carried out by a joint network of the intelligence community with jurisdiction limited to the relevant province or territory. The National Intelligence Directorate coordinates the information intelligence at both federal and provincial level; including the FIA, IB, Motorway Police, and paramilitary forces such as the Pakistan Rangers and the Frontier Corps.^[198]

Pakistan's "premier" intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligene (ISI), was formed just within a year after the Independence of Pakistan in 1947.^[199] Inter Service Intelligence Agency of Pakistan was ranked as the top intelligence agency in the world in 2011, 2014 and 2015.^[200][201]

The court system is organised as a hierarchy, with the Supreme Court at the apex, below which are High Courts, Federal Shariat Courts (one in each province and one in the federal capital), District Courts (one in each district), Judicial Magistrate Courts (in every town and city), Executive Magistrate Courts and civil courts. The Penal code has limited jurisdiction in the Tribal Areas, where law is largely derived from tribal customs.^[198][202]

Military

Pakistan Air Force's JF-17 Thunder flying in front of Nanga Parbat.

The armed forces of Pakistan are the eighth largest in the world in terms of numbers in full-time service, with about 617,000 personnel on active duty and 513,000 reservists, as of tentative estimates in 2010.^[203] They came into existence after independence in 1947, and the military establishment has frequently influenced in the national politics ever since.^[142] Chain of command of the military is kept under the control of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee; all of the branches joint works, coordination, military logistics, and joint missions are under the Joint Staff HQ.^[204] The Joint Staff HQ is composed of the Air HQ, Navy HQ, and Army GHQ in the vicinity of the Rawalpindi Military District.^[205]

The Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee is the highest principle staff officer in the armed forces, and the chief military adviser to the civilian government though the chairman has no authority over the three branches of armed forces.^[204] The Chairman joint chiefs controls the military from the JS HQ and maintains strategic communications between the military and the civilian government.^[204] As of current, the Chairman joint chiefs is General Rashid Mahmood alongside chief of army staff General Raheel Sharif,^[206] chief of naval staff Admiral Muhammad Zaka,^[207] and chief of air staff Air Chief Marshal Suhail Aman.^[208] The main branches are the Army–Air Force–Navy–Marines, which are supported by the number of paramilitary forces in the country.^[209] Control over the strategic arsenals, deployment, employment, development, military computers and command and control is a responsibility vested under the National Command Authority which oversaw the work on the nuclear policy as part of the credible minimum deterrence.^[126]

The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations and regularly export military equipment and technology transfer to Pakistan.^[210] Joint logistics and major war games are occasionally carried out by the militaries of China and Turkey.^{[209][211][212]} Philosophical basis for the military draft is introduced by the Constitution in times of emergency, but it has never been imposed.^[213] Since 1947, Pakistan has been involved in four conventional wars, the first war occurred in Kashmir with Pakistan gaining control of Western Kashmir, (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan), and India capturing Eastern Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir). Territorial problems eventually led to another conventional war in 1965; over the issue of Bengali refugees that led to another war in 1971 which resulted in Pakistan's unconditional surrender of East Pakistan.^[214] Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries at the brink of war.^[127] Since 1947, the unresolved territorial problems with Afghanistan saw border skirmishes which was kept mostly at the mountainous border. In 1961, the military and intelligence community repelled the Afghan incursion in the Bajaur Agency near the Durand Line border.^[215][216] Rising tensions with neighboring USSR in their involvement in Afghanistan, Pakistani intelligence community, mostly the ISI, systematically coordinated the U.S. resources to the Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against the Soviet Union's presence in the region. Military reports indicated that the PAF was in engagement with the Soviet Air Force, supported by the Afghan Air Force during the course of the conflict;^[217] one of which belonged to Alexander Rutskoy.^[217] Apart from its own conflicts, Pakistan has been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions. It played a major role in rescuing trapped American soldiers from Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993 in Operation Gothic Serpent.^{[218][219][220]} According to UN reports, the Pakistani military are the third largest troop contributors to UN peacekeeping missions after Ethiopia and India.

Pakistan sent UN Peacekeeping forces to the former Yugoslavia during the Yugoslav wars. During the war, Pakistan supported Bosnia while providing technical and military support. Approximately 90,000 Pakistani people went to Bosnia during the Yugoslav wars, accounting for 20% of the volunteer military force. The Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) allegedly ran an active military intelligence program during the Bosnian War which started in 1992 lasting until 1995. Allegedly executed and supervised by General Javed Nasir, the program distributed and coordinated the systematic supply of arms to various groups of Bosnian mujahideen during the war. The ISI Bosnian contingent was organized with financial assistance provided by Saudi Arabia, according to the British historian Mark Curtis.^[221] Despite the UN arms embargo in Bosnia, Nasir later confessed that the ISI airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen which turned the tide in favor of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the siege.^[222][223]

Pakistan has deployed its military in some Arab countries, providing defence, training, and playing advisory roles.^[224][225] The PAF and Navy's fighter pilots have voluntarily served in Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the Six-Day War (1967) and in the Yom Kippur War (1973). Pakistan's fighter pilots shot down ten Israeli planes in the Six-Day War.^[218] In the 1973 war one of the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi flying a MiG-21 shot down an Israeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian government.^{[226][227][228]} Requested by the Saudi monarchy in 1979, the special forces units, operatives, and commandos were rushed to assist Saudi forces in Mecca to lead the operation of the Grand Mosque.^[229] In 1991 Pakistan got involved with the Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia.^[230]

Since 2004, the military has been engaged in a war in North-West Pakistan, mainly against the homegrown Taliban factions.^[231][232] Major operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Black Thunderstorm and Operation Rah-e-Nijat.^[233][234]

Kashmir conflict

The Kashmir– the most northwesterly region of South Asia– is a primary territorial dispute that hindered the relations between India and Pakistan. Two nations have fought at least three large-scale conventional wars in successive years of 1947, 1965, and 1971. The conflict in 1971 witnessed Pakistan's unconditional surrender and a treaty that subsequently led to the independence of Bangladesh.^[235] Other serious military engagements and skirmishes included the armed contacts in Siachen Glacier (1984) and Kargil (1999).^[180] Approximately 45.1% of the Kashmir region is controlled by India while claiming the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir, including most of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen.^[180] The claim is contested by Pakistan, which approximately controls the 38.2% of the Kashmir region, known as the Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan.^[180][236]

Azad Kashmir is part of Pakistan controlled Kashmir.

India claims the Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of Accession— a legal agreement with Kashmir's leaders executed by Maharaja Hari Singh who agreed to accede the area to India.^[237] Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of a Muslim majority and of geography, the same principles that were applied for the creation of the two independent states.^[238][239] India referred the dispute to the United Nations on 1 January 1948.^[240] A resolution passed in 1948, the UN's General Assembly asked Pakistan to remove most of its troops as a plebiscite would then be held. However, Pakistan failed to vacate the region and a ceasefire was reached in 1949 with the Line of Control (LoC) was established, dividing Kashmir between the two nations.^[241] India, fearful that the Muslim majority populace of Kashmir would secede from India, did not allow a plebiscite to take place in the region. This was confirmed in a statement by India's Defense Minister, Kirshnan Menon, who said: "Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan and no Indian Government responsible for agreeing to plebiscite would survive.''^[242]

Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the people of Jammu and Kashmir to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,^[243] while India has stated that Kashmir is an integral part of India, referring to the Simla Agreement (1972) and to the fact that elections take place regularly.^[244] In recent developments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.^[180]

Law enforcement

The law enforcement in Pakistan is carried out by joint network of several federal and provincial police agencies. The four provinces and the Islamabad Capital Territory each have a civilian police force with jurisdiction extending only to the relevant province or territory.^[141] At the federal level, there are a number of civilian intelligence agencies with nationwide jurisdictions including the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA), Intelligence Bureau (IB), and the Motoway Patrol, as well as several paramilitary forces such as the National Guards (Northern Areas), the Rangers (Punjab and Sindh), and the Frontier Corps (Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan).

The most senior officers of all the civilian police forces also form part of the Police Service, which is a component of the civil service of Pakistan. Namely, there are four provincial police service including the Punjab Police, Sindh Police, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Police, and the Balochistan Police; all headed by the appointed senior Inspector-Generals. The Islamabad has its own police component, the Capital Police, to maintain law and order in the capital. The CID bureaus are the crime investigation unit and forms a vital part in each provincial police service.

The law enforcement in Pakistan also has a Motorway Patrol which is responsible for enforcement of traffic and safety laws, security and recovery on Pakistan's inter-provincial motorway network. In each of provincial Police Service, it also maintains a respective Elite Police units led by the NACTA– a counter-terrorism police unit as well as providing VIP escorts. In Punjab and Sindh, the Pakistan Rangers are an internal security force with the prime objective to provide and maintain security in war zones and areas of conflict as well as maintaining law and order which includes providing assistance to the police.^[245] The Frontier Corps serves the similar purpose in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and the Balochistan.^[245]

Role of Islam in state and Islamization

Pakistan had been created in the name of Islam.^[26] Pakistan's founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah had developed a close association with the ulema (Islamic clergy).^[246] When Jinnah died, Islamic scholar Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and also compared Jinnah's death to the Prophet's passing.^[246] Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember Jinnah's message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream:

to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies.^[246]

The first formal step taken to transform Pakistan into an ideological Islamic state was in March 1949 when the country's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, introduced the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly.^[247] The president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, announced that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan-a pan-Islamic entity.^[248] Khaliq believed that Pakistan was only a Muslim state and was not yet an Islamic state, but that it could certainly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.^[249] Keith Callard, one of the earliest scholars on Pakistani politics, observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world:

Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality.^[248]

However, Pakistan's pan-Islamist sentiments were not shared by other Muslim governments at the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language and culture.^[248] Although Muslim governments were unsympathetic with Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from all over the world were drawn to Pakistan. Figures such as the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini and leaders of Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country.^[250] After General Zia-ul-Haq took power in a military coup, Hizb ut-Tahrir (an Islamist group calling for the establishment of a Caliphate) expanded its organisational network and activities in Pakistan. Its founder, Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani, would maintain regular correspondence with Abul A’la Maududi, the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), and he also urged Dr Israr Ahmed to continue his work in Pakistan for the establishment of a global caliphate.^[251]

In the year or two before the coup, Zia's predecessor, leftist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced vigorous opposition united under the revivalist banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa^[252] ("Rule of the prophet"). According to supporters of the movement, establishing an Islamic state based on sharia law would mean a return to the justice and success of the early days of Islam when the Islamic prophet Muhammad ruled the Muslims.^[253] In an effort to stem the tide of street Islamisation, Bhutto had also called for it and banned the drinking and selling of wine by Muslims, nightclubs and horse racing.^[253][254]

Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.^[253] Zia established separate "Shariat" courts and court benches^[255][256] to judge legal cases using Islamic doctrine.^[257] New criminal offenses (of adultery, fornication, and types of blasphemy), and new punishments (of whipping, amputation, and stoning to death), were added to Pakistani law. Interest payments for bank accounts were replaced by "profit and loss" payments. Zakat charitable donations became a 2.5% annual tax. School textbooks and libraries were overhauled to remove un-Islamic material.^[258] Offices, schools, and factories were required to offer praying space.^[259] Zia bolstered the influence of the ulama (Islamic clergy) and the Islamic parties,^[257] conservative scholars became fixtures on television.^[259] 10,000s of activists from the Jamaat-e-Islami party were appointed to government posts to ensure the continuation of his agenda after his passing.^{[253][257][260][261]} Conservative ulama (Islamic scholars) were added to the Council of Islamic Ideology.^[255] Separate electorates for Hindus and Christians were established in 1985 even though Christian and Hindu leaders complained that they felt excluded from the county's political process.^[262]

Possible motivations for the Islamisation programme included Zia's personal piety, desire to gain political allies, to "fulfill Pakistan's raison d'etre" as a Muslim state, and/or the political need to legitimise what was seen by some Pakistanis as his "repressive, un-representative martial law regime".^[263]

According to Shajeel Zaidi a million people attended Zia ul Haq's funeral because he had given them what they wanted: more religion.^[264] A PEW opinion poll found that 84% of Pakistanis favoured making Sharia the official law of the land.^[265] According to the 2013 Pew Research Center report, the majority of Pakistani Muslims also support the death penalty for those who leave Islam (62%). In contrast, support for the death penalty for those who leave Islam was only 36% in fellow South Asian Muslim country Bangladesh (which shared heritage with Pakistan).^[266] A 2010 opinion poll by PEW Research Centre also found that 87% of Pakistanis considered themselves 'Muslims first' rather than a member of their nationality. This was the highest figure amongst all Muslim populations surveyed. In contrast only 67% in Jordan, 59% in Egypt, 51% in Turkey, 36% in Indonesia and 71% in Nigeria considered themselves as 'Muslim first' rather than a member of their own nationality.^[267]

Geography, environment and climate

Pakistan map of Köppen climate classification.

The geography and climate of Pakistan are extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.^[268] Pakistan covers an area of 796,095 km² (307,374 sq mi), approximately equal to the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. It is the 36th largest nation by total area, although this ranking varies depending on how the disputed territory of Kashmir is counted. Pakistan has a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south^[269] and land borders of 6,774 km (4,209 mi) in total: 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.^[141] It shares a marine border with Oman,^[270] and is separated from Tajikistan by the cold, narrow Wakhan Corridor.^[271] Pakistan occupies a geopolitically important location at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia.^[272]

Geologically, Pakistan is located in the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone and overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes. This region has the highest rates of seismicity and largest earthquakes in the Himalaya region.^[273] Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated mountains of the north, Pakistan's landscapes vary from plains to deserts, forests, hills and plateaus .^[274]

Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain and the Balochistan Plateau.^[275] The northern highlands contain the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges (see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).^[276] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries flow through the country from the Kashmir region to the Arabian Sea. There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in Punjab and Sindh.^[277]

The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There are four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.^[73] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding and drought are common.^[278]

• 

  K2 is the second-highest mountain on Earth

• 

  Swat District

• 

  Naran, Kaghan Valley

• 

  Lulusar-Dudipatsar National Park

• 

  Gilgit-Baltistan

• 

  Cold Desert, Skardu is world's highest desert

• 

  Hawke's Bay Beach in Karachi

• 

  Derawar Fort is located within the Cholistan Desert

• 

  Shangrila Lake and the adjoining resort

Flora and fauna

Bear, Tibetan wolf, and snow leopard, respectively

The diversity of landscapes and climates in Pakistan allows a wide variety of trees and plants to flourish. The forests range from coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such as spruce, pine and deodar cedar in the extreme northern mountains, through deciduous trees in most of the country (for example the mulberry-like shisham found in the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date in southern Punjab, southern Balochistan and all of Sindh. The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses and scrub plants. Mangrove forests form much of the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.^[279]

Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 metres in most of the northern and northwestern highlands. In the xeric regions of Balochistan, date palm and Ephedra are common. In most of Punjab and Sindh, the Indus plains support tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forestry as well as tropical and xeric shrublands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, and eucalyptus.^[280] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870 km²) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.^[281]

The fauna of Pakistan reflects its varied climates too. Around 668 bird species are found there:^[282][283] crows, sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons and eagles commonly occur. Palas, Kohistan, has a significant population of western tragopan.^[284] Many birds sighted in Pakistan are migratory, coming from Europe, Central Asia and India.^[285]

The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares, the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat and the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the Indus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines and small rodents are common in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas, wildcats and leopards.^[286][287] The lack of vegetative cover, the severe climate and the impact of grazing on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious position. The chinkara is the only animal that can still be found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small number of nilgai are found along the Pakistan-India border and in some parts of Cholistan.^[286][288] A wide variety of animals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), markhor and ibex goats, the Asian black bear and the Himalayan brown bear.^{[286][289][290]} Among the rare animals found in the area are the snow leopard,^[289] and the blind Indus river dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.^[289][291] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22 amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Pakistan.^[282][283]

The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of problems. Pakistan has the second-highest rate of deforestation in the world. This, along with hunting and pollution, is causing adverse effects on the ecosystem. The government has established a large number of protected areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to deal with these issues.^[282][283]

National parks and wildlife sanctuaries

Deosai National Park.

As of present, there are around 157 protected areas in Pakistan that are recognized by IUCN. According to the 'Modern Protected Areas' legislation, a national park is a protected area set aside by the government for the protection and conservation of its outstanding scenery and wildlife in a natural state. The oldest national park is Lal Suhanra in Bahawalpur District, established in 1972.^[292] It is also the only biosphere reserve of Pakistan. Lal Suhanra is the only national park established before the independence of the nation in August 1947. Central Karakoram in Gilgit Baltistan is currently the largest national park in the country, spanning over a total approximate area of 1,390,100 hectares (3,435,011.9 acres). The smallest national park is the Ayub, covering a total approximate area of 931 hectares (2,300.6 acres).

Infrastructure

Economy

Overview

Economists estimate that Pakistan has been part of the wealthiest region of the world throughout the first millennium CE having the largest economy by GDP. This advantage was lost in the 18th century as other regions edged forward such as China and Western Europe.^[293] Pakistan is considered as a developing country^{[294][295][296]} and is one of the Next Eleven, the eleven countries that, along with the BRICs, have a high potential to become the world's largest economies in the 21st century.^[297] However, after decades of social instability, as of 2013, serious deficiencies in macromangament and unbalanced macroeconomics in basic services such as train transportation and electrical energy generation had developed.^[298] The economy is considered to be semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along the Indus River.^{[299][300][301]} The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centres coexist with less developed areas in other parts of the country particularly in Balochistan.^[300] Pakistan is the 70th largest export economy in the world and the 89th most complex economy according to the Economic complexity index (ECI). In 2013, Pakistan exported $28.2B and imported $44.8B, resulting in a negative trade balance of $16.6B.^[302]

Pakistan Stock Exchange is one of the best performing market in the world. According to Forbes, PSX delivered a return of 400% between 2010 and 2015.^[303]

Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP as of 2016 is US$271 billion making it the 41st largest in the world and second largest in South Asia representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.^{[301][304][305]} The GDP by PPP is US$838,164 million.^[306] The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,197, GDP (PPP)/capita is US$4,602 (international dollars), and debt-to-GDP ratio is 55.5%.^[307][308] According to the World Bank, Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential. The increasing proportion of Pakistan's youth provides the country with a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide adequate services and employment.^[33] 21.04% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. Unemployment rate among aged 15 and over population is 5.5%.^[309] Pakistan has an estimated of 40 million middle class citizens which are projected to increase to 100 million people by 2050.^[310] A 2013 report published by the World Bank positioned Pakistan's economy at 24th largest in the world by purchasing power and 45th largest in absolute dollars.^[301] It is South Asia's second largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.^[304][305]

Fiscal Year	GDP growth	Inflation rate
2013–14[311]	4.14%[312]	[313]
2014–15	4.24%	4.8%[314]
2015–16	4.5%[315]	5.1%[314]
2016–17	4.8%Projected[316]	4.5%[316]

Pakistan's economic growth since its inception has been varied. It has been slow during periods of democratic transition, but excellent during the three periods of martial law, although the foundation for sustainable and equitable growth was not formed.^[107] The early to middle 2000s was a period of rapid economic reforms; the government raised development spending, which reduced poverty levels by 10% and increased GDP by 3%.^[141][317] The economy cooled again from 2007.^[141] Inflation reached 25.0% in 2008^[318] and Pakistan had to depend on a fiscal policy backed by the International Monetary Fund to avoid possible bankruptcy.^[319][320] A year later, the Asian Development Bank reported that Pakistan's economic crisis was easing.^[321] The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010–11 was 14.1%.^[322] Since 2013, as part of an International Monetary Fund program Pakistan's economic growth has picked up. Goldman Sachs predicted, in 2014, that Pakistan's economy would grow 15 times in the next 35 years to become 18th largest economy in the world by 2050.^[323] In his 2016 book, The Rise and Fall of Nations, Ruchir Sharma termed Pakistan’s economy as on a 'take-off' stage and the future outlook till 2020 has been termed ‘Very Good’. Sharma termed it possible to transform Pakistan from a "low-income to a middle-income country during the next five years."^[324]

Pakistan is one of the largest producers of natural commodities, and its labour market is the 10th largest in the world. The 7-million–strong Pakistani diaspora contributed an estimated US$15 billion to the economy in 2014–15.^[325][326] The major source countries of remittances to Pakistan are: the UAE; United States; Saudi Arabia; the Gulf states (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman); Australia; Canada; Japan; United Kingdom; Norway; and Switzerland.^[327][328] According to the World Trade Organization, Pakistan's share of overall world exports is declining; it contributed only 0.128% in 2007.^[329] The trade deficit in the fiscal year 2010–11 was US$11.217 billion.^[330]

Agriculture and primary sector

Surface mining in Sindh. Pakistan has been termed as the 'Saudi Arabia of Coal' by Forbes.^[331]

The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from a mainly agricultural to a strong service base. Agriculture as of 2010 accounts for only 21.2% of the GDP. Even so, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons of wheat in 2005, more than all of Africa (20,304,585 metric tons) and nearly as much as all of South America (24,557,784 metric tons).^[332] Majority of the population, directly or indirectly, is dependent on this sector. It accounts for half of employed labour force and is the largest source of foreign exchange earnings.^[333]

A large portion of the country's manufactured exports are dependent on raw materials such as cotton and hides that are part of the agriculture sector, while supply shortages and market disruptions in farm products do push up inflationary pressures. The country is also the fifth largest producer of cotton, with cotton production of 14 million bales from a modest beginning of 1.7 million bales in the early 1950s; is self sufficient in sugarcane; and is the fourth largest producer in the world of milk. Land and water resources have not risen proportionately, but the increases have taken place mainly due to gains in labor and agriculture productivity. The major breakthrough in crop production took place in the late 1960s and 1970s due to the Green Revolution that made a significant contribution to land and yield increases of wheat and rice. Private tube wells led to a 50 percent increase in the cropping intensity which was augmented by tractor cultivation. While the tube wells raised crop yields by 50 percent, the High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice led to a 50–60 percent higher yield.^[334] Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.^[335]

Manufacturing

Television assembly factory in Lahore. Pakistan's industrial sector accounts for about 24% of the GDP, and is dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises.^[336]

Manufacturing is the third largest sector of the economy, accounting for 18.5% of gross domestic product (GDP), and 13 percent of total employment. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM), at 12.2% of GDP, dominates the overall sector, accounting for 66% of the sectoral share, followed by small-scale manufacturing, which accounts for 4.9% of total GDP. Pakistan's cement industry is also fast growing mainly because of demand from Afghanistan and from the domestic real estate sector. In 2013 Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement.^[337] Pakistan has an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons of cement and 42,636,428 metric tons of clinker. In 2012 and 2013, the cement industry in Pakistan became the most profitable sector of the economy.^[338]

The textile industry has a pivotal position in the manufacturing sector of Pakistan. Pakistan is the eighth-largest exporter of textile products in Asia, contributing 9.5% to the GDP and providing employment to about 15 million people (some 30% of the 49 million people in the workforce). Pakistan is the fourth-largest producer of cotton with the third largest spinning capacity in Asia after China and India, and contributes 5% to the global spinning capacity. China is the second largest buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion of textiles last fiscal. Unlike the US, where mostly value-added textiles are imported, China buys only cotton yarn and cotton fabric from Pakistan. In 2012, Pakistani textile products accounted for 3.3% or US$1.07bn of all UK textile imports, 12.4% or $4.61bn of total Chinese textile imports, 2.98% or $2.98b of all US textile imports, 1.6% or $0.88bn of total German textile imports and 0.7% or $0.888bn of total Indian textile imports.^[339]

Services

Clifton Beach in Karachi, with under-construction skyscraper's in the background.

Services Sector has 57.7 percent share in GDP and has emerged as the main driver of economic growth.^[340] Pakistani society like other developing countries is a consumption oriented society, having a high marginal propensity to consume. The growth rate of services sector is higher than the growth rate of agriculture and industrial sector. Services sector accounts for 54 percent of GDP in 2014 and little over one-third of total employment. Services sector has strong linkages with other sectors of economy; it provides essential inputs to agriculture sector and manufacturing sector.^[341] Pakistan's I.T sector is regarded as among the fastest growing sector's in Pakistan. The World Economic Forum, assessing the development of Information and Communication Technology in the country ranked Pakistan 111th among 144 countries in the Global Information Technology report of 2014.^[342]

As of 2011, Pakistan has over 20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet penetration.^[343] Overall, it has the 27th largest population of internet users in the world. In the fiscal year 2012–2013. The current growth rate and employment trend indicate that Pakistan's Information Communication Technology (ICT) industry will exceed the $10-billion mark by 2020.^[344] The sector employees 12,000 and count's among top 5 freelancing nations.^[345][346] The country has also improved its export performance in telecom, computer and information services, as the share of their exports surged from 8.2pc in 2005–06 to 12.6pc in 2012–13. This growth is much better than that of China, whose share in services exports was 3pc and 7.7pc for the same period respectively.^[347]

Pakistan key economic statistics
Pakistan GDP composition by sector	[348]
Agriculture	25.3%
Industry	21.6%
Services	53.1%
Employment	[349]
Labour force	59.7 million
People employed	56.0 million
Natural Resources	[350][351]
Copper	12.3 million tonnes
Gold	20.9 million ounces
Coal	175 billion tonnes
Shale Gas	105 trillion cubic feet
Shale Oil	9 billion barrels
Gas production	4.2 billion cubic feet/day
Oil production	70,000 barrels/day
Iron ore	500 million[352]

Corporations	Headquarters	2012 revenue (Mil. $)[353]	Services
Pakistan State Oil	Karachi	11,570	Petroleum and Gas
Pak-Arab Refinery	Qasba Gujrat	3,000	Oil and refineries
Sui Northern Gas Pipelines	Lahore	2,520	Natural gas
Shell Pakistan	Karachi	2,380	Petroleum
Oil and Gas Development Co.	Islamabad	2,230	Petroleum and Gas
National Refinery	Karachi	1,970	Oil refinery
Hub Power Co.	Hub, Balochistan	1,970	Energy
K-Electric	Karachi	1,840	Energy
Attock Refinery	Rawalpindi	1,740	Oil refinery
Attock Petroleum	Rawalpindi	1,740	Petroleum
Lahore Electric Supply Co.	Lahore	1,490	Energy
Pakistan Refinery	Karachi	1,440	Petroleum and Gas
Sui Southern Gas Pipelines	Karachi	1,380	Natural gas
Pakistan International Airlines	Karachi	1,360	Aviation
Engro Corporation	Karachi	1,290	Food and Wholesale

Nuclear power and energy

Tarbela Dam, the largest earth filled dam in the world, was constructed in 1968.

Energy from the nuclear power source is provided by three licensed-commercial nuclear power plants, as of 2012 data.^[354] The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), the scientific and nuclear governmental authority, is solely responsible for operating these power plants, while the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority regulates safe usage of the nuclear energy.^[355] The electricity generated by commercial nuclear power plants constitutes roughly ~5.8% of electricity generated in Pakistan, compared to ~62% from fossil fuel (petroleum), ~29.9% from hydroelectric power and ~0.3% from coal.^{[356][357][358]} Pakistan is one of the four nuclear armed states (along with India, Israel, and North Korea) that is not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but is a member in good standing of the International Atomic Energy Agency.^{[359][360][361]}

For the commercial usage of the nuclear power, China has provided an avid support for commercializing the nuclear power sources in Pakistan from early on, first providing the Chashma-I reactor. The Karachi-I, a Candu-type, was provided by Canada in 1971– the country's first commercial nuclear power plant. In subsequent years, People's Republic of China sold the nuclear power plant for energy and industrial growth of the country. In 2005, both countries reached out towards working on joint energy security plan, calling for a huge increase in generating capacity to more than 160,000 MWe by 2030. Original admissions by Pakistan, the government plans for lifting nuclear capacity to 8800 MWe, 900 MWe of it by 2015 and a further 1500 MWe by 2020.^[362]

Pakistan produced 1,135MW of renewable energy for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expect's to produce 3,000MW of renewable energy by the beginning of 2019.^[363]

In June 2008, the nuclear commercial complex was expanded with the ground work of installing and operationalizing the Chashma-III and Chashma–IV reactors at Chashma, Punjab Province, each with 325–340 MWe and costing ₨. 129 billion,; from which the ₨. 80 billion of this from international sources, principally China. A further agreement for China's help with the project was signed in October 2008, and given prominence as a counter to the U.S.–India agreement shortly preceding it. Cost quoted then was US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan component of $1.07 billion. In 2013, the second nuclear commercial complex in Karachi was marginalized and expanded to additional reactors, based on the Chashma complex.^[364] The electrical energy is generated by various energy corporations and evenly distributed by the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) among the four provinces. However, the Karachi-based K-Electric and the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) generates much of the electrical energy as well as gathering revenue nationwide.^[365] Capacity to generate ~22,797MWt electricity has been installed in 2014, with the initiation of several energy projects in 2014.^[356]

Tourism

Badshahi Mosque was commissioned by the Mughals in 1671. It is listed as a World Heritage Site.

Pakistan, with its diverse cultures, people and landscapes attracted 1.1 million foreign tourists annually in 2011 and 2012 contributing $351 million and $369 million to Pakistan's economy respectively.^[366] A significant decline since the 1970s when the country received unprecedented amounts of foreign tourists due to the popular Hippie trail. The trail attracted thousands of Europeans and American's in 1960s and 1970s who travelled via land through Turkey, Iran into India through Pakistan.^[367] The main destinations of choice for these tourists were the Khyber Pass, Peshawar, Karachi, Lahore, Swat and Rawalpindi.^[368] However, the trail declined after the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet–Afghan War.^[369]

The country however continues to attract an estimated of half a million foreign tourists.^[370] Pakistan's attraction range from the ruin of civilisation such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Taxila, to the Himalayan hill stations. Pakistan is home to several mountain peaks over 7000 m.^[371] The north part of Pakistan has many old fortresses, ancient architecture and the Hunza and Chitral valley, home to small pre-Islamic Animist Kalasha community claiming descent from Alexander the Great. Pakistan's cultural capital, Lahore, contains many examples of Mughal architecture such as Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of Jahangir and the Lahore Fort.^[372]

Attabad Lake in Hunza Valley

In October 2006, just one year after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian released what it described as "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" in order to help the country's tourism industry.^[373] The five sites included Taxila, Lahore, The Karakoram Highway, Karimabad and Lake Saiful Muluk. To promote Pakistan's unique and various cultural heritage.^[374][375] In 2009, The World Economic Forum's Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Pakistan as one of the top 25% tourist destinations for its World Heritage sites. Tourist destinations range from mangroves in the south, to the 5,000-year-old cities of the Indus Valley Civilization which included Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.^[376]

Transport

The transport industry accounts for ~10.5% of the nation's GDP.^[377] Pakistan's motorway infrastructure is better than those of India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, but the train system lags behind those of India and China, and aviation infrastructure also needs improvement.^[378] There is scarcely any inland water transportation system, and coastal shipping only meets minor local requirements.^[379]

Boeing 737 owned and operated by Pakistan International Airlines (PIA). PIA operates scheduled services to 70 domestic destinations and 34 international destinations in 27 countries.

Highways form the backbone of Pakistan's transport system; a total road length of 259,618 km accounts for 91% of passenger and 96% of freight traffic. Road transport services are largely in the hands of the private sector, which handles around 95% of freight traffic. The National Highway Authority is responsible for the maintenance of national highways and motorways. The highway and motorway system depends mainly on north–south links, connecting the southern ports to the populous provinces of Punjab and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. Although this network only accounts for 4.2% of total road length, it carries 85% of the country's traffic.^[380][381]

The Pakistan Railways, under the Ministry of Railways (MoR), operates the railroad system. From 1947 until the 1970s, the train system was the primary means of transport until the nationwide constructions of the national highways and the economic boom of the automotive industry. Since the 1990s, there was a marked shift in traffic from rail to highways; dependence grew on roads after the introduction of vehicles in the country. Now the railway's share of inland traffic is only 10% for passengers and 4% for freight traffic. Personal transportation dominated by the automobiles, the total rail track decreased from 8,775 km in 1990–91 to 7,791 km in 2011.^[380][382] Pakistan expects to use the rail service to boost foreign trade with China, Iran and Turkey.^[383][384]

Rough estimates accounts for 139 airports in Pakistan–both military and civilian airports which are mostly publicly owned. Though the Jinnah International Airport is the principal international gateway to Pakistan, the international airports in Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sialkot and Multan also handle significant amounts of traffic. The civil aviation industry is mixed with public and private sectors, which has been deregulated in 1993. While the state-owned Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) is the major and dominated air carrier that carries about 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight, the private airlines such as airBlue, Shaheen Air International, and Air Indus, also provide the similar services with low cost expenses. Major seaports are in Karachi, Sindh (the Karachi port and Port Qasim).^[380][382] Since the 1990s, some seaport operations have been moved to Balochistan with the construction of Gwadar Port and Gadani Port.^[380][382] According to Mundi Index, quality ratings of Pakistan's seaports increased from 3.6 to 4 between 2006 and 2009.^[385]

Science and technology

Abdus Salam won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to electroweak interaction. He was the first Muslim to win a Nobel prize in science.

Atta-ur-Rahman won the UNESCO Science Prize for pioneering contributions in chemistry in 1999, the first Muslim to win it.

Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was a Pakistani organic chemist who pioneered research on pharmacology use of various domestic plants. He was a member of the Royal Society.

Mahbub ul Haq was a Pakistani game theorist who's work led to the Human Development Index. He had a profound effect on the field of international development.

Development on science and technology plays an influential role in Pakistan's infrastructure and helped the country to reach out to the world.^[386] Every year, scientists from around the world are invited by the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and the Pakistan Government to participate in the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.^[387] Pakistan hosted an international seminar on Physics in Developing Countries for International Year of Physics 2005.^[388] Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the electroweak interaction.^[389] Influential publications and the critical scientific works in the advancement of mathematics, biology, economics, computer science, and genetics have been produced by the Pakistani scientists at the domestic and international standings.^[390]

In chemistry, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first Pakistani scientist to bring the therapeutic constituents of the neem tree to the attention of natural products chemists.^{[391][392][393]} Pakistani neurosurgeon Ayub Ommaya invented the Ommaya reservoir, a system for treatment of brain tumours and other brain conditions.^[394] Scientific research and development plays a pivotal role in Pakistani universities, collaboration with the government sponsored national laboratories, science parks, and co-operation with the industry.^[395] Abdul Qadeer Khan regarded as the founder of HEU-based Gas-centrifuge uranium enrichment program for Pakistan's integrated atomic bomb project.^[396] He founded and established the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) in 1976, being both its senior scientist and the Director-General until his retirement in 2001, and he was an early and vital figure in other science projects. Apart from participating in Pakistan's atomic bomb project, he made major contributions in molecular morphology, physical martensite, and its integrated applications in condensed and material physics.^[397][398]

In 2010, Pakistan was ranked 43rd in the world in terms of published scientific papers.^[399] The Pakistan Academy of Sciences, a strong scientific community, plays an influential and vital role in formulating the science policies recommendation to the government.^[400]

The 1960s era saw the emergence of the active space program led by the SUPARCO that produced advances in domestic rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy.^[401] The space program recorded a few notable feats and achievements. The successful launch of its first rocket into space made Pakistan the first South Asian country to have achieved such a task.^[401] Successfully producing and launching the nation's first space satellite in 1990, Pakistan became the first Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a satellite into space.^[402][403]

Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than the BRIC countries put together.

—Thomson Reuters's Another BRIC in the Wall 2016 report^[404]

As an aftermath of the 1971 war with India, the clandestine crash program developed atomic weapons in a fear and to prevent any foreign intervention, while ushering in the atomic age in the post cold war era.^[154] Competition with India and tensions eventually led Pakistan's decision of conducting underground nuclear tests in 1998; thus becoming the seventh country in the world to successfully develop nuclear weapons.^[405]

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is the only Muslim country that maintains a research station in Antarctica and it has maintained a presence there since 1991.^[406] After establishing an Antarctic program, Pakistan is one of the small number of countries that have an active research presence in Antarctica. The Antarctic program oversees two summer research stations on the continent and plans to open another base, which will operate all year round.^[407] Energy consumption by computers and usage has grown since the 1990s when the PCs were introduced; Pakistan has over 20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet penetration, as of 2011.^[408] Key publications has been produced by Pakistan, and domestic software development has gained a lot international praise.^[409]

Overall, it has the 27th largest population of internet users in the world. Since the 2000s, Pakistan has made significant amount of progress in supercomputing, and various institutions offers research in parallel computing. Pakistan government reportedly spends ₨. 4.6 billion on information technology projects, with emphasis on e-government, human resource and infrastructure development.^[410]

Prominent Pakistani Inventions	Detail
Ommaya reservoir	System for the delivery of drugs into the cerebrospinal fluid for treatment of patients with brain tumours.
(c)Brain	One of the first computer viruses in history
Electroweak interaction	Discovery led Muslim world's first Nobel Prize in Physics.
Plastic magnet	World's first workable plastic magnet at room temperature.
Non-lethal fertilizer	A formula to make fertilizers that cannot be converted into bomb-making materials.
Non-Kink Catheter Mount	A crucial instrument used in anesthesiology.
Human Development Index	Devised by Pakistan's former finance minister, Mahbub ul Haq.[411]
Standard Model	Particle physics theory devised part by Pakistan scientist Abdus Salam

Education

Government College University is one of the oldest universities in Pakistan as well as one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the Muslim world.

The constitution of Pakistan requires the state to provide free primary and secondary education.^[412][413]

At the time of establishment of Pakistan as state, the country had only one university, the Punjab University in Lahore.^[414] On immediate basis, the Pakistan government established public universities in each four provinices including the Sindh University (1949), Peshawar University (1950), Karachi University (1953), and Balochistan University (1970). Pakistan has a large network of both public and private universities; a collaboration of public-private universities to provide research and higher education in the country, although there is concern about the low quality of teaching in many of the newer schools.^[415] It is estimated that there are 3193 technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan,^[416] and there are also madrassahs that provide free Islamic education and offer free board and lodging to students, who come mainly from the poorer strata of society.^[417] Strongly instigated public pressure and popular criticism over the extremists usage of madrassahs for recruitment, the Pakistan government has made repeated efforts to regulate and monitor the quality of education in the madrassahs.^[418][419]

Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels: nursery (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); matriculation (grades nine and ten, leading to the secondary certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher secondary certificate); and university programmes leading to graduate and postgraduate programs.^[416] Network of Pakistani private schools also operate a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set and administered by the Cambridge International Examinations of the United Kingdom. Some students choose to take the O-level and A level exams conducted by the British Council.^[420] According to the International Schools Consultancy, Pakistan has 439 international schools.^[421]

Initiatives taken in 2007, the English medium education has been made compulsory to all schools across the country.^[422][423] Additional reforms taken in 2013, all educational institutions in Sindh began instructions in Chinese language courses, reflecting China's growing role as a superpower and increasing influence in Pakistan.^[424] The literacy rate of the population is ~58 %. Male literacy is ~70.2% while female literacy rate is 46.3%.^[322] Literacy rates vary by region and particularly by sex; for instance, female literacy in tribal areas is 3.0%.^[425] With the launch of the computer literacy in 1995, the government launched a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.^[426] Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the MoEd expects to attain 100.00% enrollment levels among children of primary school age and a literacy rate of ~86% among people aged over 10.^[427] Pakistan is currently spending 2.2 percent of its GDP on education;^[428] which according to Institute of Social and Policy Sciences is one of the lowest in South Asia.^[429]

After earning their HSC, students may study in a professional college or the university for bachelorate program courses such as science and engineering (BEng, BS/BSc, BTech) surgery and medicine (MBBS, MD), dentistry (BDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), criminal justice and law (LLB, LLM, JD), architecture (BArch), pharmacy (Pharm D.) and nursing (BNurs). Students can also attend a university for a bachelorate degree for business administration, literature, and management including the BA, BCom, BBA, and MBA programs. The higher education mainly supervises by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) that sets out the policies and issues rankings of the nationwide universities. In October 2014, education activist Malala Yousafzai became by far the youngest ever person in the world to receive the Nobel peace prize.^[430]

Water supply and sanitation

Despite high population growth the country has increased the share of the population with access to an improved water source from 85% in 1990 to 92% in 2010, although this does not necessarily mean that the water from these sources is safe to drink. The share with access to improved sanitation increased from 27% to 48% during the same period, according to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation.^[431] There has also been considerable innovation at the grass-root level, in particular concerning sanitation. The Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi^[432] and community-led total sanitation in rural areas are two examples of such innovation.

However, the sector still faces major challenges. The quality of the services is poor, as evidenced by intermittent water supply in urban areas and limited wastewater treatment. Poor drinking water quality and sanitation lead to major outbreaks of waterborne diseases.^[433] major outbreaks of waterborne diseases swept the cities of Faisalabad, Karachi, Lahore and Peshawar in 2006.^[433] Estimates indicate that each year, more than three million Pakistanis become infected with waterborne diseases.^[434] In addition, many service providers do not even cover the costs of and maintenance due to low tariffs and poor efficiency.^[435] Consequently, the service providers strongly depend on government subsidies and external funding.^[436] A National Sanitation Policy and a National Drinking Water Policy have been approved in 2006 and 2009 respectively with the objective to improve water and sanitation coverage and quality.^[437][438] However, the level of annual investment (US$4/capita) still remains much below what would be necessary to achieve a significant increase in access and service quality.

Demographics

Kalash people maintain a unique identity and religion within Pakistan.

As per United States Census Bureau estimates the country's population is at 199,085,847 (199.1 million) as of 2015,^[439] which is equivalent to 2.57% of the world population.^[440] Noted as the sixth most populated country in the world, its growth rate is reported at ~2.03%, which is the highest of the SAARC nations and gives an annual increase of 3.6 million. The population is projected to reach 210.13 million by 2020 and to double by 2045.

At the time of the partition in 1947, Pakistan had a population of 32.5 million,^[328][441] but the population increased by ~57.2% between the years 1990 and 2009.^[442] By 2030, it is expected to surpass Indonesia as the largest Muslim-majority country in the world.^[443][444] Pakistan is classified as a "young nation" with a median age of about 22, and 104 million people under the age of 30 in 2010. Pakistan's fertility rate stands at 3.07, higher than its neighbor India (2.57). Around 35% of the people are under 15.^[328] Vast majority residing in Southern Pakistan lives along the Indus River, with Karachi being its most populous commercial city.^[445] In the eastern, western, and Northern Pakistan, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar.^[141] During 1990–2008, the city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia which further increased to 38% by 2013.^{[141][328][446]} Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.^[447]

Expenditure spend on healthcare was ~2.8% of GDP in 2013. Life expectancy at birth was 67 years for females and 65 years for males in 2013.^[446] The private sector accounts for about 80% of outpatient visits. Approximately 19% of the population and 30% of children under five are malnourished.^[301] Mortality of the under-fives was 86 per 1,000 live births in 2012.^[446]

Languages

First languages of Pakistan[448]
Punjabi			48%
Sindhi			12%
Punjabi (Saraiki)			10%
Pashto			8%
Urdu			8%
Balochi			3%
Others			11%

More than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, including a number of provincial languages. Urdu— the lingua franca, a symbol of Muslim identity, and national unity— is the national language which is understood by over 75% of Pakistanis and the main source of nationwide communication but is only the primary language of 8% of Pakistan's population.^{[272][449][450]} Urdu and English are the official languages of Pakistan, however English is primarily used in official business, government, and legal contracts;^[141] the local dialect is known as Pakistani English. The Punjabi language is the most common in Pakistan and is mother-tongue of 66% of Pakistan's population mostly of people in Punjab.^[451] This includes 48% of Standard Punjabi speakers^[450] as well as regional Punjabi dialects such as Saraiki and Hindko. Saraiki dialect is mainly spoken in South Punjab and counts up to 10% of Pakistan's population, while the Hindko dialect is spoken in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the Pashto language is the provincial language and is well understood in Sindh and Balochistan.^[10] The Sindhi language is the common language spoken in Sindh while the Balochi language is dominant in Balochistan. Brahui, a Dravidian language, is spoken by the Brahui people who live in Balochistan.^{[10][73][452]} Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan also claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi.^[453] Marwari, a Rajasthani language, is also spoken in parts of Sindh. Various languages such as Shina, Balti and Burushaski are spoken in Gilgit-Baltistan, whilst various languages such as Pahari, Gojri and Kashmiri are frequently spoken in Azad Kashmir.

Immigration

Pakistan hosts the second largest refugee population globally after Turkey.^[454] Seen here, an Afghan refugee girl near Tarbela Dam.

The Pakistan Census excludes the immigrants such as the 1.7 million registered Afghans from Afghanistan, who are found mainly in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal belt with small numbers residing in Karachi and Quetta.^[455][456] Pakistan hosts more refugees than any other country in the world.^[457]

As of 2012 there are 5 million illegal immigrants in Pakistan. Around 2 million are Bangladeshis, 2.5 million are Afghans and the other 0.5 million are from various other areas such as Myanmar, Iraq and Africa.^[458]

Shaikh Muhammad Feroze, the chairman of the Pakistani Bengali Action Committee, claimed that there were 200 settlements of Bengali-speaking people in Pakistan, of which 132 are in Karachi. They are found in various areas of Pakistan such as Thatta, Badin, Hyderabad, Tando Adam and Lahore.^[459]

Experts say that the migration of both Bengalis and Burmese (Rohingya) to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Large scale Rohingya migration to Karachi made Karachi one of the largest population centres of Rohingyas in the world after Myanmar.^[460] The Burmese community of Karachi is spread out over 60 slums in Karachi such as the Burmi Colony in Korangi, Arakanabad, Machchar colony, Bilal colony, Ziaul Haq Colony and Godhra Camp.^[461]

Thousands of Uyghur Muslims have also migrated to the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan, fleeing religious and cultural persecution in Xinjiang, China.^[462] Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees have sought refuge in Pakistan, complaining that many of the refugee women had been raped by Indian soldiers and that they were forced out of their homes by the soldiers.^[463]

Social groups

The population is dominated by four main ethnic groups: Punjabis, Pashtuns (Pathans), Sindhis, and Balochs.^[464] Rough accounts from 2009 indicate that the Punjabis dominate with 78.7 million (~45%) while the Pashtuns are the second dominating group with ~29.3 million (15.42%).^[464] The Sindhis are estimated at 24.8 million (14.1%) with Seraikis a sub-group of Punjabis is approximated at a further 14.8 million (8.4%).^[464] The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs (the Indian emigrants) stands at ~13.3 million (7.57%) while Balochs are accounted at 6.3 million (3.57%)– the smallest group in population terms.^[464][465] The remaining 11.1 million (4.66%) belong to various ethnic minorities such as Brahuis, Hindkowans, the various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan, Kashmiris, Sheedis (who are of African descent) and Hazaras.^[464] There is also a large Pakistani diaspora worldwide, numbering over seven million,^[465] which has been recorded as the sixth largest diaspora in the world.^[466]

Religion

Religions in Pakistan[468][469][470][471]
Religions			Percent
Islam			96.4%
Others			3.6%

Faisal Mosque, built in 1986 by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay on behalf of King Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia.

About 97.0% of Pakistanis are Muslims. Pakistan has the second largest number of Muslims in the world after Indonesia.^[472] The majority are Sunni, with an estimated 10–25% Shia.^{[73][473][474][475]} Pakistan is said to have the third largest Shia population in the world after Iran and India with a Shia population of about 42.5 million.^{[473][474][476][477]} However, a PEW survey in 2012 found that only 6% of Pakistani Muslims were Shia.^[478] The Ahmadis, are another minority sect in Pakistan, albeit in much smaller numbers and are officially considered non-Muslims by virtue of the constitutional amendment.^[479] There are also several Quraniyoon communities.^[480][481] After the 9/11 attacks in the United States, the sectarian violence among Muslim denominations has increased with systematic targeted killings of both sects, Sunnis and Shias.^[482][483] In 2013, there were country-wide protests by both Shias and Sunnis calling an end to sectarian violence in the country, toughen up the law and order, and urging for Shia-Sunni unity in the country.^[484] The Ahmadis are particularly persecuted, especially since 1974 when they were banned from calling themselves Muslims. In 1984, Ahmadiyya places of worship were banned from being called "mosques".^[485] As of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.^[486]

Hinduism is the second largest religion in Pakistan after Islam, according to the 1998 Census.^[487] As of 2010, Pakistan had the fifth largest Hindu population in the world and PEW predicts that by 2050 Pakistan will have the fourth largest Hindu population in the world.^[488][489] In the 1998 Census the Hindu (jati) population was found to be 2,111,271 while the Hindu (scheduled castes) numbered an additional 332.343.^[487] Hindus are found in all provinces of Pakistan but are mostly concentrated in Sindh. They speak a variety of languages such as Sindhi, Seraiki, Aer, Dhatki, Gera, Goaria, Gurgula, Jandavra, Kabutra, Koli, Loarki, Marwari, Sansi and Vaghri.^[490]

At the time of Pakistan's creation the 'hostage theory' had been espoused. According to this theory the Hindu minority in Pakistan was to be given a fair deal in Pakistan in order to ensure the protection of the Muslim minority in India.^[491] However, Khawaja Nazimuddin, the second Prime Minister of Pakistan, stated:

I do not agree that religion is a private affair of the individual nor do I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no matter what his caste, creed or faith be.^[492]

Christians formed the next largest religious minority, after Hindus, with a population of 2,092,902, as per the 1998 Census.^[487] They were followed by the Bahá'í Faith, which had a following of 30,000, then Sikhism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, each back then claiming 20,000 adherents,^[493] and a very small community of Jains. There is a Roman Catholic community in Karachi which was established by Goan and Tamil migrants when Karachi's infrastructure was being developed by the British during colonial administration between World War I and World War II. Influence of atheism is very little with 1.0% of the population aligned as atheist in 2005.^[494] However, the figure rose to 2.0% in 2012 according to Gallup.^[494]

Islam, the main religion in Pakistan, has to some extent syncretized with pre-Islamic influences, resulting in a religion with some traditions distinct from those of the Arab world.^[495] Two Sufis whose shrines receive much national attention are Ali Hajweri in Lahore (c. 12th century)^[496] and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan, Sindh (c. 12th century).^[497] Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, has a long history and a large popular following in Pakistan. Popular Sufi culture is centered on Thursday night gatherings at shrines and annual festivals which feature Sufi music and dance. Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists criticize its popular character, which in their view, does not accurately reflect the teachings and practice of the Prophet and his companions.^[498][499]

Culture and society

Truck art in Pakistan is a unique feature of Pakistani culture.

Civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasising local cultural etiquettes and traditional Islamic values that govern personal and political life. The basic family unit is the extended family,^[500] although there has been a growing trend towards nuclear families for socio-economic reasons.^[501] The traditional dress for both men and women is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, Jeans, and shirts are also popular among men.^[52] The middle class has increased to around 35 million and the upper and upper-middle classes to around 17 million in recent decades, and power is shifting from rural landowners to the urbanised elites.^[502] Pakistani festivals such as Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramazan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are mostly religious in origin.^[500] Increasing globalisation has resulted in Pakistan ranking 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index.^[503]

Clothing, arts, and fashion

The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa as well as in FATA and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Kameez. Pakistanis wear clothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric (silk, chiffon, cotton, etc).^[504] Besides the national dress, the domestically tailored suits and neckties are often and usually worn by men in the country, and it is customary in offices, schools, and other necessary places and popular gatherings.^[504]

The fashion industry has flourished well in the changing environment of the fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being, its fashion has historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms. The Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in Lahore organizes Fashion Week and Fashion Pakistan based in Karachi organizes fashion shows in that city. Pakistan's first fashion week was held in November 2009.^[505]

Role of women in Pakistani society

Benazir Bhutto was the first woman elected to lead a Muslim state, and is the only one to be elected twice

Malala Yousafzai is the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate.

Fatima was the first women to run a presidential campaign in Asia.

The social status of women in Pakistan varies and considerably depends on the social class, upbringings, and regional divide due to uneven socioeconomic development and the impact of social formations on women's lives in the country.^[506] Pakistan has had a long history of feminist activism since its birth.^[506] Since 1947, the APWA and Aurat Foundation – the influential feminist organizations – have played strong roles in inculcating awareness about women's rights in the country.^[506] Personalities such as Begum Rana'a, Benazir Bhutto, Malala Yousafzai and Kalsoom Nawaz have been influential in Pakistan's feminist culture.^[506] The status of women, overall, has improved due to enhanced religious and educational knowledge. However, with regard to the global average, the situation is quite alarming. In 2014, the World Economic Forum ranked Pakistan as the second worst country in the world in gender equality.^[507]

The relationship of women with the opposite gender is culturally that of gender subordination. There are certain assumed and assigned roles of women that are related to domestic chores compared with men who are the breadwinners and professionals of the family. Contrastingly, in urban areas of the country, more and more women are assuming professional roles and are contributing to family economics but the ratio of these women compared with those in traditional roles is way less. Most favoured occupations for females accepted by society are that of Teaching and Tutoring.^[506][508] Due to heightened awareness among people, educational opportunities for Pakistani women have increased over the years.^[509] On 24 February 2016, the elected assembly of Pakistan's Punjab province passed a new law called "Punjab Protection of Women Against Violence Bill 2015 " which provides women with protection against a multitude of crimes including: cyber crime, domestic violence, emotional, economic and psychological abuse.^[510]

Media and entertainment

Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy has won Oscars in 2012 and 2016 for her documentaries.

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was a globally renowned Pakistani Qawwali singer

Nazia Hassan was a pop singer-songwriter who introduced pop music to South Asia.

The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV) and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) for radio were the dominant media outlets until the 21st century. Pakistan now has a large network of domestic private 24-hour news media and television channels.^[511] According to a 2016 report by the Reporters Without Borders ranked Pakistan in 147th on the Press Freedom Index, while terming the Pakistani media "among the freest in Asia when it comes to covering the squabbling among politicians."^[512] BBC term's Pakistani media as "among the most outspoken in South Asia."^[513]

The Lollywood, an Urdu, Punjabi and Pashto film industry is based in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. While Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 until 2008, they have remained important in popular culture.^[514][515] Contrary to the ailing film industry, the Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances are popular, as many entertainment media air the series regularly.^[516] Urdu dramas dominate the TV entertainment industry, and have debuted critically acclaimed miniseries, and have featured popular actors and actresses since the 1990s.^[517] In the 1960s–1970s, pop music and disco (1970s) dominated the country's music industry. In the 1980s–1990s, British influenced rock music appeared and jolted the country's entertainment industry.^[518] In the 2000s, heavy metal music gained popular and critical acclaim.^[519]

Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern forms fusing traditional and western music.^[520][521] Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of Afghan refugees in the western provinces has stimulated interest in Pashto music, although there has been intolerance of it in some places.^[522] Pakistani media has also played a vital role in exposing corruption.^[523]

Urbanisation

Since achieving independence as a result of the partition of India, the urbanization has exponentially increased and has several different causes for it.^[445] Majority of southern side population resides along the Indus River, with Karachi being its most populous commercial city.^[445] On the east, west, and northern skirts, the most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan and Peshawar. During 1990–2008, the city dwellers made up 36.0% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia. Furthermore, more than 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.^[447] Immigration, both from within and outside the country, is regarded as one of the main factors that has contributed to urbanisation in Pakistan. One analysis of the national census held in 1998 highlighted the significance of the Partition of India in the 1940s in the context of understanding urban change in Pakistan.^[524]

Karachi has an estimated population of over 25 million people, making it among the world's largest cities.^[525]

During the independence period, Muslim Muhajirs from India migrated in large numbers and shifted their domicile to Pakistan, especially to the port city of Karachi, which is today the largest metropolis in Pakistan.^[524] Migration from other countries, mainly those in the neighbourhood, has further catalysed the process of urbanisation in Pakistani cities. Of particular interest is migration that occurred in the aftermath of the independence of Bangladesh in 1971,^[524] in the form of stranded Biharis who were relocated to Pakistan. Smaller numbers of Bengalis and Burmese immigrants followed suit much later. The conflict in Afghanistan also forced millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, particularly in the northwestern regions. Inevitably, the rapid urbanisation caused by these large population movements has also brought new political and socio-economic complexities.^[524] In addition to immigration, economic events such as the green revolution and political developments, among a host of other factors, are also important causes of urbanisation.^[524]

Diaspora

Sadiq Khan is the Mayor of London and also served as the UK's Minister of State for Transport. He is a son of Pakistani expats.

According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth largest diaspora in the world.^[466] Statistics approximated by the Pakistani government show that there are around 7 million Pakistanis residing abroad with the vast majority living in the Middle East, Europe and North America.^[526] Pakistan ranks 10th in the world for remittances sent home in 2012 at $13 billion.^[527][528]

The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan; the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis was established in 2008 to exclusively deal with all the matters and affairs of the overseas Pakistanis such as attending to their needs and problems, intending schemes and projects for their welfare and working for resolution of their problems and issues. Overseas Pakistani workers are the second largest source of Foreign Exchange Remittances to Pakistan after exports and over the last several years, the foreign exchange remittances have maintained a steady rising trend, with a recorded increase of 150% from US$6 billion in 2009 to estimated US$15 billion during 2015.^[325]

In 2009–10, Pakistanis sent home US$9.4 billion, the eleventh-largest total remittance in the world.^[528] By 2012, Pakistan increased its ranking to tenth in the world for remittances with a total sum of US$13 billion.^[527][528] The Overseas Pakistani Division (OPD) was created in September 2004 within the Ministry of Labour (MoL), and has since recognized the importance of overseas Pakistanis and their contribution to the nation's economy. Together with Community Welfare Attaches (CWAs) and the Overseas Pakistanis Foundation (OPF), the OPD is improving the welfare of Pakistanis who reside abroad. The division aims to provide better services through improved facilities at airports, and suitable schemes for housing, education and health care—its largest effort is the facilitation of the rehabilitation of returning overseas Pakistanis.

Literature and philosophy

Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet who conceived the idea of Pakistan.

Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English and many other languages.^[529] The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a large literary community that promotes literature and poetry in Pakistan and abroad.^[530] The National Library publishes and promotes literature in the country. Before the 19th century, literature consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry, mystical and folkloric works. During the colonial age, the native literary figures were influenced by western literary realism and took up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fiction is now very popular.^[531][532]

Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is part of Pakistan's sufi heritage.^[533]

The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian. He was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilisation and encouraged Muslims binding all over the world to bring about successful revolution.^{[534][535][536]} Well-known representatives of contemporary Pakistani Urdu literature include Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Sadequain is known for his calligraphy and paintings.^[532] Sufi poets Shah Abdul Latif, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Bakhsh and Khawaja Farid are very popular in Pakistan.^[537] Mirza Kalich Beg has been termed the father of modern Sindhi prose.^[538] Historically, philosophical development in the country was dominated by Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Syed, Muhammad Asad, Maududi, and Ali Johar.^[539]

Ideas from British and American philosophy greatly shaped philosophical development in Pakistan. Analysts such as M.M. Sharif and Zafar Hassan established the first major Pakistani philosophical movement in 1947.^[540] After the 1971 war, philosophers such as Jalaludin Abdur Rahim, Gianchandani, and Malik Khalid incorporated Marxism into Pakistan's philosophical development.^[541] Influential work by Manzoor Ahmad, Jon Elia, Hasan Askari Rizvi, and Abdul Khaliq brought mainstream social, political, and analytical philosophy to the fore of Pakistani philosophical academia.^[541] Global works by Noam Chomsky have influenced philosophical ideas in various fields of social and political philosophy.^[542][543]

Architecture

Minar-e-Pakistan is a public monument marking Pakistan's independence movement.

Pakistani architecture has four recognised periods: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilisation around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC,^[544] an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large buildings, some of which survive to this day.^[545] Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic settlements that are now tourist attractions.^[276] The rise of Buddhism and the Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style,^[546] starting from the 1st century AD. The high point of this era was reached at the peak of the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.^[547]

The Lahore Fort, a landmark built during the Mughal era, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The arrival of Islam in today's Pakistan meant a sudden end of Buddhist architecture in the area and a smooth transition to the predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture. The most important Indo-Islamic-style building still standing is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan. During the Mughal era, design elements of Persian-Islamic architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of Hindustani art. Lahore, occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits many important buildings from the empire. Most prominent among them are the Badshahi mosque, the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful, the Mughal-style Wazir Khan Mosque,^[548] the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore and the Shahjahan Mosque in Thatta. In the British colonial period, predominantly functional buildings of the Indo-European representative style developed from a mixture of European and Indian-Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity is expressed in modern structures like the Faisal Mosque, the Minar-e-Pakistan and the Mazar-e-Quaid.^[549] Several of the architectural infrastructure has been influenced from the British design, and such architectural designs can be found in Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.^[549]

Food and drink

A Pakistani dish cooked using the tandoori method.

Pakistani cuisine is similar to cuisine from other regions of South Asia, since much of it originated from the royal kitchens of sixteenth-century Mughal emperors. Pakistan has a greater variety of meat dishes compared to the rest of the sub-continent. Most of those dishes have their roots in British, Central Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. Pakistani cooking uses large quantities of spices, herbs and seasoning. Garlic, ginger, turmeric, red chilli and garam masala are used in most dishes, and home cooking regularly includes curry. Chapati, a thin flat bread made from wheat, is a staple food, served with curry, meat, vegetables and lentils. Rice is also common; it is served plain, fried with spices, and in sweet dishes.^{[272][550][551]}

Lassi is a traditional drink in the Punjab region. Black tea with milk and sugar is popular throughout Pakistan and is taken daily by most of the population.^[52][552] Sohan Halwa is a popular sweet dish from the southern region of Punjab province and is enjoyed all over Pakistan.^[553]

Sports

The majority of the sports played in Pakistan originated and were substantially developed by the United Kingdom who introduced them during the British India. Field Hockey is the national sport of Pakistan; it has won three Gold medallions in the Olympic Games held in 1960, 1968, and 1984.^[554] Pakistan has also won the Hockey World Cup a record four times held in 1971, 1978, 1982, and in 1994.^[555]

Cricket, however, is the most popular game across the country.^[556] The cricket team (popular as Shaheen) has won the Cricket World Cup held in 1992; it had been runners-up once, in 1999, and co-hosted the tournament in 1987 and 1996. Pakistan were runners-up in the inaugural World Twenty20 (2007) in South Africa and won the World Twenty20 in England in 2009. In March 2009, militants attacked the touring Sri Lanka's cricket team,^[557] after which no international cricket was played in Pakistan until May 2015, when the Zimbabwean team agreed to a tour.

In athletics, Abdul Khaliq participated in 1954 Asian Games and the 1958 Asian Games. He won 34 international gold, 15 international silver and 12 bronze medals for Pakistan.^[558] In squash, world-class players such as Jahangir Khan^[559] and Jansher Khan won the World Open Squash Championship several times during their careers.^[560] Jahangir Khan also won the British Open a record ten times.^[559] In Mountaineering Nazir Sabir is Pakistan's first Mountaineer who Climbed Mount Everest. In Cave exploration Adventure Sports Hayatullah Khan Durrani is Pakistan's first Eminent Cave Explorer / Speleologist and Founder of Caving adventure sports in Pakistan. Pakistan has competed many times at the Olympics in field hockey, boxing, athletics, swimming, and shooting.^[561] Pakistan's Olympic medal tally stands at 10 of which 8 were earned in hockey.^[562] The Commonwealth Games and Asian Games medal tallies stand at 65 and 160 respectively.^[563][564] At national level, polo is popular, with regular national events in different parts of the country. Boxing, billiards, snooker, rowing, Canoeing, kayaking, caving, tennis, contract bridge, golf and volleyball are also actively pursued, and Pakistan has produced regional and international champions in these sports.^{[50][560][561]} Basketball enjoys regional popularity especially in Lahore and Karachi.^[565]

See also

• Index of Pakistan-related articles
• Outline of Pakistan
• Pakistan – Wikipedia book

Notes

1. "Include data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir (13,297 km² or 5,134 sq mi) and Gilgit–Baltistan (72,520 km² or 28,000 sq mi).^[13] Including these territories would produce an area figure of 796,095 km² (307,374 sq mi)."

References

1. James Minahan (23 December 2009). The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 141. ISBN 9780313344978.
2. "The State Emblem". Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
3. "National Symbols and Things of Pakistan". Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
4. "SC orders immediate implementation of Urdu as official language". The Express Tribune. September 7, 2015. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
5. "Pakistan to replace English with Urdu as official language". The Express Tribune. July 29, 2015. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
6. "PM approves implementation of Urdu language in govt departments – Pakistan – Dunya News". dunyanews.tv.
7. Irfan Haider. "PM, president to deliver speeches in Urdu on foreign trips, SC told". dawn.com.
8. "Govt. submits plan to Supreme Court to promote Urdu as official language". The News Teller.
9. "Population by Mother Tongue". Population Census Organization, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 12 September 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
10. "Background Note: Pakistan-Profile". State.Gov. 6 October 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
11. "Pakistan" The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency.
12. Ehsan Rashid (1977). "THE CONCEPT OF PAKISTAN IN THE LIGHT OF IQBAL's ADDRESS AT ALLAHABAD". Iqbal Memorial Talks. Retrieved 5 March 2014. Ehsan Rashid explains how concept of Pakistan and Iqbal's Allahabad address are interlinked.
13. "Pakistan statistics". Geohive. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
14. http://www.worldatlas.com/as/pk/where-is-pakistan.html
15. "Pakistan". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved October 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
16. "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
17. "2015 Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
18. Miguel Loureiro (28 July 2005). "Driving—the good, the bad and the ugly". Daily Times. Pakistan. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
19. Wright 2010:Quote: "The Indus civilization is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilization in the Old World (Childe 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
20. Feuerstein, Georg; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (1995). In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India. Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-8356-0720-9.
21. Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin, Pakistan: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-85109-801-1
22. "Archaeologists confirm Indian civilization is 2000 years older than previously believed". globalpost.com. 16 November 2012.
23. "Cradle Of Civilisation". nation.com.pk. May 10, 2015.
24. "Rich heritage: Ancient civilisations offer potential for regional linkages, says Aziz - The Express Tribune". tribune.com.pk. 10 May 2016.
25. Jennings, Justin (15 April 2016). "Killing Civilization: A Reassessment of Early Urbanism and Its Consequences". UNM Press – via Google Books.
26. Hussain, Rizwan . "Pakistan." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 04-Apr-2016. <http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616>.
27. Barry Buzan (2004). The United States and the great powers: world politics in the twenty-first century. Polity. pp. 71, 99. ISBN 978-0-7456-3374-9. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
28. Hussein Solomon. "South African Foreign Policy and Middle Power Leadership". Archived from the original on 24 June 2002. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
29. Iqbal, Anwar (2015-11-08). "Pakistan an emerging market economy: IMF". www.dawn.com. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
30. Kaplan, Seth. "Is Pakistan an emerging market?". Retrieved 2016-02-27.
31. http://aiddata.org/blog/poverty-in-pakistan-numerous-efforts-many-numbers-not-enough-results
32. http://tribune.com.pk/story/953303/over-last-9-months-70-decline-in-terrorist-attacks-in-pakistan/
33. "Pakistan Overview". worldbank.org.
34. ExpressTribune http://tribune.com.pk/story/973649/pakistan-has-18th-largest-middle-class-in-the-world-report. Retrieved 2016-06-16. Missing or empty |title= (help)
35. Membership, FT. "Fast FT". www.ft.com. Retrieved 2016-06-15.
36. "Bloomberg ranks Pakistan among world's top ten stock market performers". DailyTimes.
37. "Thumbs up: Pakistan meets criteria for CERN". The Express Tribune.
38. Raverty, Henry George. A Dictionary of Pashto.
39. "Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary". 1872. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
40. Choudhary Rahmat Ali (28 January 1933). "Now or never: Are we to live or perish for ever?". Columbia University. Retrieved 4 December 2007.
41. Choudhary Rahmat Ali (28 January 1933). "Now or Never. Are we to live or perish forever?".
42. S. M. Ikram (1 January 1995). Indian Muslims and partition of India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 177–. ISBN 978-81-7156-374-6. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
43. Rahmat Ali. "Rahmat Ali ::Now or Never". The Pakistan National Movement. p. 2. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
44. Roderic H. Davidson (1960). "Where is the Middle East?". Foreign Affairs. 38 (4): 665–675. doi:10.2307/20029452.
45. Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (2007), "Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent", in Michael Petraglia, Bridget Allchin, The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1
46. Parth R. Chauhan. "An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective". Sheffield Graduate Journal of Archaeology. University of Sheffield. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
47. Vipul Singh (2008). The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination. Dorling Kindesley, licensees of Pearson Education India. pp. 3–4, 15, 88–90, 152, 162. ISBN 81-317-1753-4. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
48. Robert Arnett (15 July 2006). India Unveiled. Atman Press. pp. 180–. ISBN 978-0-9652900-4-3. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
49. Meghan A. Porter. "Mohenjo-Daro". Minnesota State University. Archived from the original on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
50. Marian Rengel (2004). Pakistan: a primary source cultural guide. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group Inc. pp. 58–59,100–102. ISBN 0-8239-4001-2. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
51. "Britannica Online – Rigveda". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
52. Sarina Singh; Lindsay Brow; Paul Clammer; Rodney Cocks; John Mock (2008). Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway. Lonely Planet. p. 60,128,376. ISBN 978-1-74104-542-0. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
53. David W. del Testa, ed. (2001). Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Westport, Connecticut: The Oryx Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-57356-153-3. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
54. Ahmad Hasan Dani. "Guide to Historic Taxila". The National Fund for Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
55. Joseph Needham (1994). A selection from the writings of Joseph Needham. McFarland & Co. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-89950-903-7. When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BC they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about AD 400.
56. Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 0-415-32919-1. In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila.
57. Balakrishnan Muniapan; Junaid M. Shaikh (2007). "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India". World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development 2007. 3 (1): 50–61. doi:10.1504/WREMSD.2007.012130.
58. Radha Kumud Mookerji (1951) [reprint 1989]. Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist (2nd ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 478–479. ISBN 81-208-0423-6.
59. Ira Marvin Lapidus (2002). A history of Islamic societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 382–384. ISBN 0-521-77933-2.
60. Andre Wink (1996). Al Hind the Making of the Indo Islamic World. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 152. ISBN 90-04-09249-8.
61. "History in Chronological Order". Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 23 July 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
62. "Why some in Pakistan want to replace Jinnah as the founder of the country with an 8th-century Arab".
63. "Figuring Qasim: How Pakistan was won". Dawn. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
64. "The first Pakistani?". Dawn. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
65. "Muhammad Bin Qasim: Predator or preacher?". Dawn. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
66. Rubina Saigol (2014). "What is the most blatant lie taught through Pakistan textbooks?". Herald. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
67. Shazia Rafi (2015). "A case for Gandhara". Dawn. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
68. Robert L. Canfield (2002). Turko-Persia in historical perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–21. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
69. Metcalf, B.; Metcalf, T. R. (9 October 2006), A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1
70. Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C (1 January 2008), India Before Europe (1st ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
71. Jalal, Ayesha (1994). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge UK: Cambridge South Asian Studies.
72. Stephen Evans, "Macaulay's minute revisited: Colonial language policy in nineteenth-century India," Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (2002) 23#4 pp. 260–281
73. "Country Profile: Pakistan" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2005. pp. 2, 3, 6, 8. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
74. "Sepoy Rebellion: 1857". Thenagain.info. 12 September 2003. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
75. Markovits, Claude (2 November 2007). "India from 1900 to 1947". http://www.massviolence.org. Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Retrieved 2 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
76. Ak̲h̲tar, Altāf Ḥusain Ḥālī ; Talk̲h̲īṣ, Salim (1993). Ḥayāt-i jāved. Lāhaur: Sang-i Mīl Pablikeshanz. ISBN 9693501861.
77. Coward, ed. by Harold G. (1987). Modern Indian responses to religious pluralism. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0887065724.
78. Sarkar, R.N. (2006). Islam related Naipual [sic] (1st ed.). New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. ISBN 8176256935.
79. Qureshi, M. Naeem (1999). Pan-Islam in British Indian politics : a study of the Khilafat movement, 1918 – 1924. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill. ISBN 978-9004113718.
80. byQureshi, M. Naeem Pan-Islam in British Indian politics, pp. 57,245 by M.Naeem Qureshi
81. Chirol, Valentine (2006), Indian Unrest, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 0-543-94122-1.
82. John Farndon (1 March 1999). Concise encyclopaedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4.
83. Daniel Lak (4 March 2008). India express: the future of a new superpower. Viking Canada. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-670-06484-7. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
84. Cohen, Stephen Philip (2004). The idea of Pakistan (1st pbk. ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0815797613.
85. "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2006.
86. "Sir Muhammad Iqbal's 1930 Presidential Address". Speeches, Writings, and Statements of Iqbal. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
87. Editorial work, no author. (5 January 2009). "Understanding Jinnah's Position on World War I and II Lessons to be learned". https://www.politact.coml. United Kingdom: Politact. Retrieved 3 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
88. Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 9781851098019.
89. Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 71. ISBN 9781851098019.
90. Akram, Wasim. "Jinnah and cabinet Mission Plan". http://www.academia.edu. Academia Edu. Retrieved 3 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
91. Stanley Wolpert (2002). Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. pp. 306–332. ISBN 0-19-577462-0.
92. D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 9780415565660.
93. Butalia, Urvashi (2000). The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India. Duke University Press.
94. Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 9781134378258.
95. Paul R. Brass (2003). "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. p. 75 (5(1), 71–101). Retrieved 2014-08-16.
96. "20th-century international relations (politics) :: South Asia". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
97. Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and ... – Kamala Visweswara. nGoogle Books.in (16 May 2011).
98. "Rupture in South Asia" (PDF). UNHCR. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
99. Dr Crispin Bates (2011-03-03). "The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies". BBC. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
100. Tanya Basu (15 August 2014). "The Fading Memory of South Asia's Partition". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
101. Subir Bhaumik (1996). Insurgent Crossfire: North-East India. Lancer Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-897829-12-7. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
102. "Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan". Mount Holyoke College. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
103. "Muhammad Ali Jinnah's first Presidential Address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (August 11, 1947)". JSpeech. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
104. "Pakistan". worldstatesmen.org. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
105. Hussain, Rizwan . "Pakistan." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 04-Apr-2016. <http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616>.
106. James Wynbrandt (2009). A brief history of Pakistan. Infobase Publishing. pp. 190–197. ISBN 978-0-8160-6184-6. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
107. Anis Chowdhury; Wahiduddin Mahmud (2008). Handbook on the South Asian economies. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-1-84376-988-0. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
108. Mission with a Difference. Lancer Publishers. p. 17. GGKEY:KGWAHUGNPY9. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
109. Adam Jones (2004). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 420. ISBN 978-0-415-35384-7.
110. R. Jahan (2004). Samuel Totten, ed. Teaching about genocide: issues, approaches, and resources. Information Age Publishing. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-1-59311-074-1.
111. "1971 war summary". BBC. 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
112. Bose, Sarmila (2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971". Economic and Political Weekly. 40 (41): 4463–71. ISSN 2349-8846. JSTOR 4417267 – via JSTOR. (registration required (help)).
113. "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history – BBC News". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-03-03.
114. Hiro, Dilip (2015). The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. Nation Books. p. 216. ISBN 9781568585031.
115. "STATISTICS OF PAKISTAN'S DEMOCIDE". Retrieved 10 February 2015.
116. Beachler, Donald (2011). The Genocide Debate: Politicians, Academics, and Victims. Springer. p. 16. ISBN 9780230337633.
117. M. Zafar. "How Pakistan Army moved into the Political Arena". Defence Journal. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
118. "Bhutto was father of Pakistan's Atom Bomb Programme". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
119. Pervez Amerali Hoodbhoy (23 January 2011). "Pakistan's nuclear bayonet". The Herald. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 9 September 2011.
120. Sushil Khanna. "The Crisis in the Pakistan Economy". Revolutionary Democracy. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
121. Michael Heng Siam-Heng; Ten Chin Liew (2010). State and Secularism: Perspectives from Asia. Singapore: World Scientific. p. 202. ISBN 978-981-4282-37-6. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
122. Steve Coll. Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 (23 February 2004 ed.). Penguin Press HC. p. 720. ISBN 978-1-59420-007-6.
123. Odd Arne Westad (2005). The global Cold War: third world interventions and the making of our times. Cambridge University Press. pp. 348–358. ISBN 978-0-521-85364-4. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
124. Marie Chene. "Overview of corruption in Pakistan". Anti Corruption Resource Centre. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
125. Ishrat Husain (2009). "Pakistan & Afghanistan: Domestic Pressures and Regional Threats : The Role of Politics in Pakistan's Economy". Journal of International Affairs. 63 (1): 1–18.
126. Khan, Feroz Hassan (2012). Eating grass : the making of the Pakistani bomb. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804776004.
127. "India launches Kashmir air attack". BBC News. 26 May 1999. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
128. "Pakistan after the coup: Special report". BBC. 12 October 2000. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
129. "Pakistan Among Top 10 Reformers". World Bank. 12 September 2005. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
130. "Performance of 12th NationalAssembly of Pakistan-" (PDF). Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transperency. p. 5. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
131. "New Pakistan PM Gillani sworn in". BBC. 25 March 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
132. "Zardari wins Pakistan presidential election: officials". AFP. 5 September 2008. Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
133. Candace Rondeaux (19 August 2008). "Musharraf Exits, but Uncertainty Remains". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
134. Associated Press (18 August 2008). "Pakistani President Musharraf Resigns Amid Impeachment Threats". Fox News. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
135. "Gilani disqualified as PM: SC". Daily The News International.com. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
136. "Cost of War on Terror for Pakistan Economy" (PDF). Ministry of Finance, Pakistan. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
137. "War on terror cost Pakistan $67.9 billion". DAWN. 20 June 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
138. United Press International. "3.4 million displaced by Pakistan fighting". Retrieved 24 July 2010.
139. "Nawaz Sharif sworn in as Pakistani PM". ABC. 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
140. "Part I: "Introductory"". pakistani.org.
141. "Pakistan". World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
142. "World: South Asia Pakistan's army and its history of politics". BBC. 10 December 1999. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
143. Colgrove, Rosemary (2010). Eye on the sparrow : the remarkable journey of Father Joseph Nisari, Pakistani priest. Minneapolis: Mill City Press. ISBN 1936400871.
144. Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict between India and Pakistan : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576077128. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
145. Ahmad, Hafeez Ashfaq. "Determinants of Foreign Policy of Pakistan". Scrib, 19 November 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
146. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs". Pakistan Government. Official policy statements. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
147. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs Homepage". MoFA.gov.pk. Government of Pakistan. 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
148. Grover, ed. by Verinder; Arora, Ranjana (1995). Political system in Pakistan. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publ. ISBN 8171007392.
149. KrishnaRao, K.V. (1991). Prepare or perish : a study of national security. New Delhi: Lancer Publ. ISBN 817212001X.
150. Associate press (December 28, 2013). "Pakistan wants friendly ties will all countries". Dawn newspapers, 2013. Dawn newspapers. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
151. Chakma, Bhumitra (2009). Pakistan's nuclear weapons. London: Routledge, UK. ISBN 0415408717.
152. Officials reports (June 18, 2010). "Pakistan a Responsible Nuclear Power, Official Asserts". NPT News Directorate. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
153. "World: Monitoring Nawaz Sharif's speech". BBC. 28 May 1998. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
154. Haqqani, Husain (2005). "§Chapter 3". Pakistan : between mosque and military (1. print. ed.). Washington, DC: United Book Press. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1. The trauma was extremely severe in Pakistan when the news of secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh arrived — a psychological setback, complete and humiliating defeat that shattered the prestige of Pakistan Armed Forces.
155. "N-deterrence to be pursued". Dawn. 15 July 2011. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
156. Shah, Mehtab Ali (1997). The foreign policy of Pakistan : ethnic impacts on diplomacy, 1971–1994. London [u.a.]: Tauris. ISBN 1860641695.
157. Shahi, Abdul Sattar ; foreword by Agha (2013). Pakistan's foreign policy, 1947–2012 : a concise history (Third ed.). Karachi: Oxford University Press, Shahi. ISBN 0199069107.
158. Govt of Pakistan. "Foreign Policy of Pakistan". http://www.mofa.gov.pk/. Govt of Pakistan. Retrieved 3 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
159. Hasan Askari Rizvi. "Pakistan's Foreign Policy:An Overview 1947–2004" (PDF). Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency. pp. 10–12, 20. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
160. "United Nations Member States". United Nations. 3 July 2006. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
161. "Senate OIC Report" (PDF). Senate of Pakistan: Senate Foreign Relations Committee. September 2005. pp. 16–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
162. "A Plea for Enlightened Moderation". The Washington Post. 1 June 2004. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
163. "Pakistan". Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
164. "Member Countries". ECO. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
165. A.R.Kemal. "Exploring Pakistan's Regional Economic Cooperation Potential" (PDF). PIDE. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
166. "G-20 Ministerial Meeting". Commerce.nic.in. Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India. 19 March 2005. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
167. Tharoor, Ishaan (3 December 2014). "The Pakistani origins of the Israeli state". Washington Post, Pakistan Bureau. Washington Post. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
168. Khoury, Jack (28 February 2015). "Israeli lecturer takes part in Pakistan conference". Haaretz. Haaretz. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
169. "Pakistan-Israel in landmark talks". BBC News. 1 September 2005. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
170. Staff work (5 February 2015). "Pakistan the only country not recognizing Armenia – envoy". Armenian TImes. Armenian TImes. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
171. Pande, Aparna (2006). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1136818944.
172. Afridi, Jamal; Bajoria, Jayshree (6 July 2010). "China-Pakistan Relations". http://www.cfr.org/. Council on Foreign Relations, China Pakistan. Retrieved 3 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
173. "ISLAMABAD: Pakistan and China agreed to raise their trade volume up to $20 billion and pledged to continue their cooperation in civil nuclear technology.". http://www.thenews.com.pk/. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. External link in |work= (help)
174. Urvashi Aneja (June 2006). "PAKISTAN-CHINA RELATIONS" (PDF). Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. p. 1. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
175. "CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations". Thomson Reuters. Reuters. 24 November 2006. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
176. Jamal Afridi. "China-Pakistan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
177. Gillette, Maris Boyd (2000). Between Mecca and Beijing. California, [u.s]: Stanford University Press, California, [u.s]. ISBN 0804764344.
178. "China opens 'largest' embassy in Pakistan, strengthens South Asia presence – Asian Correspondent". asiancorrespondent.com.
179. Anwar, Muhammad (2006). Friends Near Home: Pakistan's Strategic Security Options. Islamabad, Pakistan: AuthorHouse. 2006. ISBN 1467015415.
180. "Kashmir". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
181. Robert Nolan. "Pakistan: The Most Allied Ally in Asia". Foreign Policy Association. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2009.
182. staff writer (9 January 2015). "Accord to diversify ties with Russia". Dawn, 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
183. Sabir Shah. "US military aid to Pakistan suspended six times since 1954". The News International, Pakistan. Retrieved 26 October 2009.
184. "2015 Joint Statement By President Barack Obama And Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-28.
185. D'Souza, Shanthie (2006). "US-Pakistan Counter-Terrorism Cooperation: Dynamics and Challenges" (PDF). Strategic Analysis. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
186. Alain Gresh. "The United States' new backyard". Le Monde diplomatique. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
187. C.J. Radin. "Analysis: The US-Pakistan relationship". Long War Journal. Retrieved January 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
188. Nazir Khaja. "Pakistan & USA – Allies in the war on Terrorism!". Defence Talk. Retrieved 15 February 2010.
189. Karen DeYoung. "Pakistan backed attacks on American targets, U.S. says". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
190. "Balochistan: "We only receive back the bodies"". The Economist. Quetta. 7 April 2012.
191. Reuters (4 August 2016). "China joins Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan in security alliance". www.atimes.com. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
192. Article 1(1)–2(d) of the Part I: Introductory in the Constitution of Pakistan
193. "Highlights of Prime Minister's Press Talk on "Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self Governance Order −2009" at PM'S Secretariat on August 29, 2009". Press Information Department, Pakistan. 2009. Archived from the original (DOC) on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
194. "Decentralization in Pakistan". World Bank. Archived from the original on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
195. "Azad Jammu and Kashmir Districts". Government of AJK. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
196. "Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self Governance Order" (PDF). Dunya. 2009: 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2010.
197. "Map of Agencies and Regions in the FATA". fata.gov.pk. Archived from the original (PNG) on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
198. Asad Jamal (2010). Police Organisations in Pakistan. CHRI and HRCP. pp. 9–15. ISBN 81-88205-79-6.
199. Manoj Shrivastava (1 April 2013). Re-Energising Indian Intelligence. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 89. ISBN 9789382573555.
200. Aditya Rangroo. "Top Intelligence Agencies of the World". International Business Times UK. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
201. Web Desk. "Here's Why ISI Ranked Top Best Intelligence Agency Of The World – Pakistan Tribe". Pakistan Tribe. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
202. Faqir Hussain (2009). "The Judicial System Of Pakistan" (PDF). Supreme Court of Pakistan. pp. 10–21. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
203. International Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett, James (ed.) (2010). The Military Balance 2010. London: Routledge. pp. 367–370. ISBN 1-85743-557-5.
204. Blood, Peter R. (1995). Pakistan. Washington D.C.: Diane Publishing Co. ISBN 0788136313. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
205. Singh, R.S.N. (2008). The military factor in Pakistan. New Delhi: Frankfort, IL. ISBN 0981537898.
206. Mateen Haider (27 November 2013). "Lt Gen Raheel Sharif chosen as new army chief". Dawn. Dawn.Com. Retrieved 28 November 2013.
207. "Chief of Naval Staff". http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/. ISPR (Navy Division). Retrieved 3 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
208. OAF. "Chief of Air Staff". http://www.paf.gov.pk/. ISPR (Air Force). Retrieved 26 April 2015. External link in |website= (help)
209. "Pakistan Armed Forces". Center For Defense Information. Archived from the original on 10 February 1998. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
210. "Importer/Exporter TIV Tables". Armstrade.sipri.org. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
211. "Pakistan and China participate in drill". Dawn. 26 November 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
212. Kamran Yousaf (15 November 2011). "Joint military exercise: Pakistan, China begin war games near Jhelum". Tribune. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
213. "Child Soldiers Global Report 2008 – Pakistan". UNHCR. 20 May 2008. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
214. "War History". Pakistan Army. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
215. "Daoud as Prime Minister, 1953–63". 1997. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
216. Ian Talbot (1999). The Armed Forces of Pakistan. Macmillan publishers. p. 99. ISBN 0-312-21606-8.
217. "HISTORY OF PAF". Pakistan Air Force. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
218. "Pakistan Armed Forces". Scramble Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 December 2001. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
219. "Pakistan Army". Pakistan Defense. Archived from the original on 22 August 2013. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
220. "UN Peace Keeping Missions". Pakistan Army. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
221. Curtis, Mark. Secret Affairs Britain's Collusion with Radical Islam. (New updated ed.). London: Profile. ISBN 1847653014.
222. "'Pak defied UN, supplied arms to Bosnia'". Press Trust of India. 4 September 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
223. "Javed Nasir". ISI Directorship. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
224. Anthony H. Cordesman (December 1986). Western Strategic Interests in Saudi Arabia. Croom Helm. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0-7099-4823-0. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
225. Bidanda M. Chengappa (30 November 2005). Pakistan Islamisation. APH Publishing Corporation. p. 42. ISBN 978-81-7648-548-7. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
226. Bidanda M. Chengappa (1 January 2004). Pakistan: Islamisation Army And Foreign Policy. APH Publishing. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-81-7648-548-7. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
227. Simon Dunstan (20 April 2003). The Yom Kippur War 1973 (2): The Sinai. Osprey Publishing. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-1-84176-221-0. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
228. P.R. Kumaraswamy (11 January 2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War. Routledge. pp. 75–. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-4. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
229. Irfan Husain (2012). Fatal Faultlines : Pakistan, Islam and the West. Rockville, Maryland: Arc Manor Publishers. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-60450-478-1. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
230. "The 1991 Gulf war". San Francisco Chronicle. 24 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
231. Zaffar Abbas (10 September 2004). "Pakistan's undeclared war". BBC. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
232. "The War in Pakistan". Washington Post. 25 January 2006. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
233. "Troops make gains in Swat and South Waziristan". Dawn. 21 June 2009. Archived from the original on 20 June 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
234. "26 killed as troops hit Taliban hideouts in Dir". Daily Times. 28 April 2009. Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
235. Raza, Maroof (1996). "§Implications of 1971 war and India's nuclear explosion". Wars and no peace over Kashmir (googlebooks). New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 1996. p. 170. ISBN 1897829167. Retrieved 9 March 2015. In December 1971, Pakistan lost half its country, and with over ~90,000 troops of its military becoming POWs, all its earlier myth could not survive this no longer...
236. Sean Anderson (2009). Historical dictionary of terrorism. Scarecrow Press. pp. 347–348. ISBN 978-0-8108-4101-7.
237. Paul Bowers (30 March 2004). "Kashmir (House of Commons Research Paper 04/28)" (PDF). House of Commons Library. p. 46. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
238. Amita Shastri (2001). The Post-Colonial States of South Asia: Democracy, Development and Identity. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-312-23852-0. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
239. Joseph J. Hobbs (2008). World Regional Geography. Brooks Cole. p. 314. ISBN 978-0-495-38950-7. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
240. Auckland (24 September 2001). "A brief history of the Kashmir conflict". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
241. International Court of Justice (2012). "Advisory Opinion on the Legal Status of Kashmir". IMUNA. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
242. Endrst, Jeff (September 8, 1965). "Kashmir Old Headache For U.N". The Pittsburgh Press. Retrieved 8/02/2016.
243. Talat Masood (2006). "Pakistan's Kashmir Policy" (PDF). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program. p. 1. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
244. "Freedom in the World 2009 – Kashmir (India)". UNHCR. 16 July 2009. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
245. "Our Partners". National Police Bureau, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
246. Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN 9781316258385.
247. Haqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 16. ISBN 9780870032851.
248. Haqqani, Husssain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 18. ISBN 9780870032851.
249. Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 491. ISBN 9781316258385.
250. Haqqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 19. ISBN 9780870032851.
251. Khan, Sher Ali (12 February 2016). "Global connections: The crackdown on Hizbut Tahrir intensifies". Herald.
252. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (1996). Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 45–6. ISBN 0195096959.
253. Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (2006 ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 100–101. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
254. Michael Heng Siam-Heng, Ten Chin Liew (2010). State and Secularism: Perspectives from Asia§General Zia-ul-Haq and Patronage of Islamism. Singapore: World Scientific. p. 360. ISBN 9789814282383.
255. Double Jeopardy: Police Abuse of Women in Pakistan. Human Rights Watch. 1992. p. 19. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
256. Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: between mosque and military. Washington D.C.: United Book Press. p. 400. ISBN 9780870032851.
257. Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Facts on File. pp. 216–7. ISBN 9780816061846.
258. Jones, Owen Bennett (2002). Pakistan : eye of the storm. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 16–7.
259. Paracha, Nadeem F. (3 September 2009). "Pious follies". Dawn.com. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
260. Jones, Owen Bennett (2002). Pakistan : eye of the storm. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 16–7. ... Zia rewarded the only political party to offer him consistent support, Jamaat-e-Islami. Tens of thousands of Jamaat activists and sympathisers were given jobs in the judiciary, the civil service and other state institutions. These appointments meant Zia's Islamic agenda lived on long after he died.
261. Nasr, Vali (2004). "Islamization, the State and Development". In Hathaway, Robert; Lee, Wilson. ISLAMIZATION AND THE PAKISTANI ECONOMY (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center or Scholars. p. 95. Retrieved 30 January 2015. General Zia became the patron of Islamization in Pakistan and for the first time in the country’s history, opened the bureaucracy, the military, and various state institutions to Islamic parties
262. Jones, Owen Bennett (2002). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm. Yale University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0300101473. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
263. Talbot, Ian (1998). Pakistan, a Modern History. NY: St.Martin's Press. p. 286.
264. Zaidi, Shajeel (17 August 2016). "In defence of Ziaul Haq". Express Tribune.
265. Street, 1615 L.; NW; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 202 419 4300 | Main 202 419 4349 | Fax [phone] | Media (2013-04-30). "Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
266. "Majorities of Muslims in Egypt and Pakistan support the death penalty for leaving Islam". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
267. Street, 1615 L.; NW; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 202 419 4300 | Main 202 419 4349 | Fax [phone] | Media (2010-03-31). "What Do You Consider Yourself First?". Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
268. "Land and People". http://infopak.gov.pk/. Ministry of Information, Broadcasting, and National Heritage. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
269. "PNS Gwadar". Global Security. 21 November 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
270. "Muscat Agreement on the Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary between the Sultanate of Oman and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 12 June 2000(1)" (PDF). United Nations. p. 1. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
271. Edward Wong (27 October 2010). "In Icy Tip of Afghanistan, War Seems Remote". New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
272. Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin (2006). Pakistan: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO |. pp. 3, 317, 323–324. ISBN 1-85109-801-1.
273. "Pakistan in the most active quake zone, says US Geological Survey". Dawn. 27 October 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
274. "Pakistan". Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
275. "About Pakistan: Geography". American Institute For Pakistan Studies. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
276. "PTDC page on mountaineering". Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation. Archived from the original on 10 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
277. "Pakistan". InfoPlease. Pearson Education. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
278. "Pakistan Climate". Encyclopedia of the Nations. 28 March 2008. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
279. "Conservation of Mangrove Forests in the Coastal Areas of Sindh and Balochistan". WWF Pakistan. Archived from the original on 25 December 2004. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
280. "Introduction". AIT-UNEP RRC.AP. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
281. Rhett Butler. "Pakistan Deforestation Rates and Related Forestry Figures". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
282. "Biodiversity". WWF. Archived from the original on 15 January 2005. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
283. "Biodiversity Sharing the Environment" (PDF). Government of Pakistan. pp. 1, 4–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2006. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
284. Naeem Ashraf Raja, P. Davidson; et al. (1999). "The birds of Palas, North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan" (PDF). Forktail. Oriental Bird Club. 15: 77–85. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
285. Richard Grimmett; Tom J. Roberts; Tim Inskipp (27 February 2009). Birds of Pakistan. A&C Black. pp. 6,38–41,132–136. ISBN 978-0-7136-8800-9. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
286. "Sheet1". WWF. Archived from the original (XLS) on 15 September 2006. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
287. "Pakistan plant and animal life". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
288. David M. Shackleton; International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Species Survival Commission. Caprinae Specialist Group (January 1997). Wild sheep and goats and their relatives: status survey and conservation action plan for caprinae. IUCN. pp. 10–13, 352. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
289. "Species". WWF Pakistan. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
290. "Pakistan". Wildlife Conservation Society. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
291. Pete Heiden (1 September 2011). Pakistan. ABDO. pp. 33–44. ISBN 978-1-61787-631-8. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
292. "Canadian Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, an international journal: Current issue (Number: 4, Volume: 2, June 2010) Online ISSN 1920-3853" (PDF). cjpas.net. SENRA Academic Publishers, Burnaby, British Columbia. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2011. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
293. Maddison, Angus (2006). The World Economy. A Millennial Perspective (Vol. 1). Historical Statistics (Vol. 2). OECD. pp. 241, 261. ISBN 92-64-02261-9.
294. Faryal Leghari (3 January 2007). "GCC investments in Pakistan and future trends". Gulf Research Center. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
295. "Quid Pro Quo 45 – Tales of Success" (PDF). Muslim Commercial Bank of Pakistan. 2007. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
296. Malcolm Borthwick (1 June 2006). "Pakistan steels itself for sell-offs". BBC News. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
297. Tavia Grant (8 December 2011). "On 10th birthday, BRICs poised for more growth". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
298. Declan Walsh (18 May 2013). "Pakistan, Rusting in Its Tracks". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 May 2013. natural disasters and entrenched insurgencies, abject poverty and feudal kleptocrats, and an economy near meltdown
299. Henneberry, S. (2000). "An analysis of industrial–agricultural interactions: A case study in Pakistan". Agricultural Economics. 22: 17–27. doi:10.1016/S0169-5150(99)00041-9.
300. "World Bank Document" (PDF). 2008. p. 14. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
301. "Pakistan Country Report" (PDF). RAD-AID. 2010. pp. 3, 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
302. "OEC – Pakistan (PAK) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners". atlas.media.mit.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-24.
303. Mourdoukoutas, Panos. "Why Pakistan's Market Beats China's And India's". Retrieved 2016-09-15.
304. "Recent developments". The World Bank. June 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
305. "Pakistan May Keep Key Rate Unchanged After Two Cuts This Year". Bloomberg. 28 September 2009. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
306. GDP ranking, PPP based World Bank
307. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". International Monetary Fund. April 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
308. "Economic Survey 2010–11: Country sinks deeper into debt". Express Tribune. 3 June 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
309. "Human Development Indices" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports. p. 15. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
310. "How U.S. Higher Education Partnerships Can Promote Development In Pakistan". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
311. "Dar's 2013 budget speech – the highs and the very low lows". The Express Tribune. 25 May 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
312. HIGHLIGHTS OF PAKISTAN ECONOMIC SURVEY 2013–14
313. "FY14: FDI clocks in at $1.63 billion, up 11.99%". The Express Tribune. 16 July 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
314. "Economic Survey 2014–15: Ishaq Dar touts economic growth amidst missed targets". The Express Tribune. 4 June 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
315. "World Bank forecasts GDP growth rate at 4.5 percent in FY16". The News International. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
316. "Pakistan: Economy". Asian Development Bank. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
317. John Wall. "Concluding Remarks at the Pakistan Development Forum 2006". World Bank. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
318. Sajid Chaudhry (17 January 2009). "Inflation Outlook 2008–09:". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
319. Isambard Wilkinson (6 October 2008). "Pakistan facing bankruptcy—Telegraph". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 6 October 2008.
320. Con Coughlin (10 October 2008). "If Pakistan goes bust, the Taliban will rule the roost there as well—Telegraph". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
321. "Business | Pakistan's economic crisis eases in 2009: ADB". Dawn. Pakistan. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
322. "Labour Force Survey 2010–11" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan. 2011. p. 12. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
323. "Global ranking: Pakistan billed to become 18th largest economy by 2050 – The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
324. "Pakistan's economy ready for takeoff | TNS - The News on Sunday". tns.thenews.com.pk. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
325. Sakib Sherani. "Pakistan's remittances". dawn.com. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
326. "Pakistan | State Bank of Pakistan" (PDF). sbp.org. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
327. "Leading News Resource of Pakistan". Daily Times. 11 February 2010. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
328. N.S. Nizami (2010). "Population, Labour Force and Employment" (PDF). Ministry of Finance, Pakistan. pp. 1, 2, 9, 12, 20. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
329. Yasir kamal. "Understanding Pakistan's Exports Flows: Results from Gravity Model Estimation". Pakistan Instituue of Trade and Development. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
330. Imran Ali Kundi (10 April 2011). "Trade deficit reaches $11.21b". The Nation. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
331. "US needs to look at Pakistan in a broader way, not just through security prism: Forbes report". pakistantoday.com.pk. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
332. "Sectoral Share in Gross Domestic Product" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Statistics. 2010. p. 10. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
333. "Agriculture Statistics | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics". www.pbs.gov.pk. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
334. [iba.edu.pk/News/...drishrat/AgricultureSector_Issues_n_Prospects.docx "AGRICULTURE SECTOR: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS."] Check |url= value (help). Retrieved 4 March 2016.
335. "Manufacturing in Pakistan" (PDF). Government of Pakistan. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
336. "Industry | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics". www.pbs.gov.pk. Retrieved 2016-10-23.
337. "All Pakistan Cement Manufacturers Association Export Data". Apcma.com. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
338. Bhutta, Zafar (21 May 2013). "Can't get enough: Soaring profits not enough for cement industry". Tribune.com.pk. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
339. Baig, Khurram (18 March 2013). "Why the Pakistan textile industry cannot die". Tribune.com.pk. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
340. "The unparalleled growth of the services sector – The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
341. "Contribution of Services Sector in the Economy of Pakistan" (PDF). Retrieved 4 March 2016.
342. Farooq Baloch (6 May 2012). "As PSEB dallies, IT Park project in jeopardy". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
343. "Internet users in Pakistan cross 20 million mark". Express Tribune. 28 October 2011. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
344. "Upward move: Pakistan's ICT sector to cross $10b mark, says P@SHA – The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
345. "Pakistan Startup Report". 2014-07-07.
346. "Pakistan: The Next Colombia Success Story?". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
347. Bhatti, Muhammad Umer Saleem (2015-06-22). "Services sector: domestic and outward growth". www.dawn.com. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
348. "Pakistan GDP – composition by sector". Index Mundi – Country Facts. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
349. "Economic overview" (PDF). Ministry of Finance. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
350. "Unearthing Pakistan's natural resources". theodora.com. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
351. "Pakistan said to have large reserves of shale gas, oil". theodora.com. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
352. AFP. "Pakistan discovers 'huge' reserves of iron ore". dawn.com.
353. Tirmizi, Farooq (24 December 2012). "The growth of the "billion dollar club" in Pakistan". The Express Tribune.
354. (PAEC), Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (12 May 2011). "Prime Minister inaugurates 340 MW Chashma Nuclear Power Plant Unit-2: Govt to provide full support to PAEC for Nuclear Power Projects Urges International Community to make nuclear technology accessible to Pakistan for power generation". Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission's Press Directorate. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Directorate for Public Press and International News Relations.
355. (PAEC), Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. "Nuclear Power Generation Programme". Government of Pakistan. PAEC. Archived from the original on 9 February 2005. Retrieved 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
356. Kazmi, Zahir (7 January 2014). "Pakistan's energy security". Special report on Energy security efforts in Pakistan. Express Tribune, 2014. Express Tribune. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
357. Syed Yousaf, Raza (31 July 2012). "Current Picture of Electrical Energy In Pakistan" (PDF). Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Directorate-General for Nuclear Power Generation. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
358. Zulfikar, Saman (23 April 2012). "Pak-China energy cooperation". Pakistan Observer. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
359. UN Press Release. "IAEA Publications: Pakistan Overview". IAEA, P.O. Box 100, Wagramer Strasse 5, A-1400 Vienna, Austria. IAEA Membership states. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
360. Associate Press of Pakistan (APP) (25 April 2011). "IAEA declares nuclear energy programme safe". Dawn Newspapers, 25 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
361. Dahl, Fredrik (27 September 2010). "Nuclear-armed Pakistan chairs board of U.N. atom body". Reuters, Vienna. Retrieved 17 April 2012. "Pakistan is a long-standing and "very law-abiding" member of the IAEA, got no opposition from any side at all
362. Ijaz, Muhammad, Director of Scientific Information and Public Relation (SIPR) (December 2010). "PAEC assigned 8,800 MWe nuclear power target by 2030:PAEC contributing to socio-economic uplift of the country" (PDF). PakAtom Newsletter. Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. 49 (1–2): 1–8.
363. "Pakistan producing more than 1,000MW of clean energy - The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
364. Bhutta, Zafar (7 June 2013). "Govt to kick off work on 1,100MW nuclear power plant". Express Tribune. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
365. "Power Sector Situation in Pakistan" (PDF). Alternate Energy Development Board and GTZ. 2005. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
366. "One million tourists visit Pakistan in 2012". Pakistan Observer. 21 October 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
367. "Richard Gregory". www.richardgregory.org.uk. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
368. Paracha, Nadeem (7 July 2008). "Before the Lights Went Out". http://nadeemfparacha.wordpress.com. Karachi. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 19 September 2011. External link in |work= (help)
369. mag, Christian Caryl Legatum Institute / Foreign Policy (2013-06-12). "When Afghanistan Was Just a Stop on the 'Hippie Trail'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
370. "Number of foreign tourists in 2014 dips by 50% - The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. 2014-09-27. Retrieved 2016-06-17.
371. PTDC page on mountaineering at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 January 2004)
373. Windsor, Antonia (17 October 2006). "Out of the rubble". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
374. Events taking place during 2007, Press released by Tourism of Pakistan
375. "Tourism Events in Pakistan in 2010". Tourism.gov.pk. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
376. "The road between China and Pakistan". Financial Times. 4 July 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
377. The World Bank (2011). "Transportation in Pakistan". World Bank. Retrieved January 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
378. Pravakar Sahoo (March 2011). "Macroeconomic Performance and Infrastructure Development in India". Transport Infrastructure in India: Developments, Challenges and Lessons from Japan (PDF) (Research Paper). Visiting Research Fellows. Institute of Development Economies, Japan External Trade Organization. p. 4. 465. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
379. Farrukh Javed (2005). "Sustainable financing for the maintenance of Pakistan Highways" (PDF). UNESCAP. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
380. Ahmed Jamal pirzada (2011). "Draft: Role of Connectivity in Growth Strategy of Pakistan" (PDF). Planning Commission, Pakistan. pp. 4, 7, 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
381. "National Highway Development Sector Investment Program" (PDF). Asian Development Bank. 2005. pp. 11, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
382. "PAKISTAN". Encyclopedia Nation. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
383. Syed Fazl-e-Haider (24 February 2007). "China-Pakistan rail link on horizon". Asia Times Online. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
384. "Pakistan-Turkey rail trial starts". BBC. 14 August 2009. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
385. Robert Stimson & Kingsley E. Haynes 2012, p. 44.
386. Ministry of Science and Technology. "National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2012" (PDF). Ministry of Science and Technology. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
387. "Address by Prime Minister" (DOC). Press Information Department (Government of Pakistan). Retrieved 24 December 2011.
388. Hameed A. Khan (2006). "Physics in Developing Countries – Past, Present & Future" (PDF). COMSATS: 9. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
389. "1979 Nobel Prize in Physics". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
390. Mian, ed. by Smitu Kothari & Zia (2001). Out of the nuclear shadow. London: Zed, 2001. ISBN 1842770594.
391. "Technology Times – Vol 2 – Issue 11" (PDF). Retrieved 20 April 2013.
392. "Section Science & Technology". Pakistan Press Club. doi:10.1504/WREMSD.2007.012130. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
393. Ahmed, Irshad. "Using RP Model to solve Current Challenges of Pakistan by PHd Scholar Irshad Ahmed Sumra". Academia.edu. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
394. Leonidas C. Goudas; et al. (1999). "Decreases in Cerebrospinal Fluid Glutathione Levels after Intracerebroventricular Morphine for Cancer Pain". International Anesthesia Research Society. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
395. Osama, Athar; Najam, Adil; Kassim-Lakha, Shamsh; Zulfiqar Gilani, Syed; King, Christopher (3 September 2009). "Pakistan's reform experiment". Nature. 461 (7260): 38–39. doi:10.1038/461038a. PMID 19727184. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
396. (IISS), International Institute for Strategic Studies (2006). "Bhutto was father of Pakistan's Atom Bomb Program". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
397. "A.Q. Khan & Iran". Global Security. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
398. NY Times Staff (April 16, 2006). "Chronology: A.Q. Khan". NY Times. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
399. Junaidi, Ikram (25 December 2011). "Pakistan ranks 43rd in scientific research publication". Dawn news, 2010. Dawn news, 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
400. "Introduction to the Academy". http://www.paspk.org/. Inbtroduction of the Academy. Retrieved 16 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
401. "History of SUPARCO". SUPARCO. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
402. "The Launching of Badr-I". Aero Space Guide. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
403. Lele, Ajey (2012). Asian Space Race: Rhetoric or Reality?. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 46. ISBN 978-81-322-0733-7.
404. "Pakistani articles 'cited more than BRICs put together', says report". Tribune. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
405. "Pakistan Nuclear Weapons". Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 22 February 2007.
406. Sayar, M.A. (April–June 1995). "Should We Exploit The Last Wilderness?". The Fountain Magazine. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
407. "Antarctic Research". National Institute of Oceanography (Pakistan). Retrieved 29 December 2011.
408. "Internet users in Pakistan cross 20 million mark". Express Tribune. 28 October 2011. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
409. staff works (10 May 2010). "Pakistani Computer Scientist wins global Supercomputer Design Award". Lahore Tech. Lahore Tech. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
410. "Govt to spend Rs4.6b on IT projects". Express Tribune. 6 September 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
411. Haq, Mahbub ul. 1995. Reflections on Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
412. "Chapter 1: "Fundamental Rights" of Part II: "Fundamental Rights and Principles of Policy"". pakistani.org.
413. "Right to Education in Pakistan". World Council of Churches. 21 April 2006. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
414. Sajida Mukhtar; Ijaz Ahmed Talat; Muhammad Saeed (March 2011). "An Analytical Study of Higher Education of Pakistan" (PDF). International Journal of Academic Research. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
415. "Number of universities rises while education standard falls". DailyTimes. 10 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
416. "Economic Survey 2009–10" (PDF). Ministry of Finance, Pakistan. 2009–2010. pp. 16, 3. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
417. "Pakistani madrassahs:". United States Institute of Peace. Archived from the original on 14 February 2005. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
418. Synovitz, Ron (24 February 2004). "Pakistan: Despite Reform Plan, Few Changes Seen At Most Radical Madrassahs". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
419. Ali, Syed Mohammad. "Policy Brief: Another Approach to Madrassa Reforms in Pakistan". http://jinnah-institute.org/. Jinnah Institute of Peace. Retrieved 21 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
420. "GCE O and A level exams in Pakistan". The British Council. Archived from the original on 1 February 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
421. "International School Consultancy Group > Information > ISC News". iscresearch.com.
422. McNicoll, Kristen. "English medium education improvement in Pakistan supported". http://www.britishcouncil.org/. British Council Pakistan Bureau. Retrieved 21 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
423. "Ministry of Education-Government of Pakistan". Moe.gov.pk. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
424. "Schools in Pakistan's Sindh province to teach Chinese". BBC. 5 September 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
425. Nicholas D Kristof (12 May 2010). "Pakistan and Times Sq". New York Times. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
426. "Education in Pakistan". UNICEF. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
427. "National Plan of Action 2001–2015". Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original (ZIP) on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
428. "Pakistan Economic Survey 2015-16 (Education)" (PDF). Retrieved 19 August 2016.
429. "Pakistan's education spending lowest in South Asia". Dawn. 28 April 2016.
430. "Breaking News English". www.breakingnewsenglish.com.
431. Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). "Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan": 11. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
432. Welle, Katherina (March 2008). "Mapping as a basis for sanitation implementation in Pakistan: the case of the Orangi Pilot Project" (PDF). Beyond construction. Use by all. A collection of case studies from sanitation and hygiene promotion practitioners in South Asia. London: WaterAid, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre: 95–110. ISBN 978-9937-2-0472-9. Retrieved 2013-10-09.
433. Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). "Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan": 9. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
434. Weekly Independent. 2005-03-17. Missing or empty |title= (help) ; cited in:Water and Sanitation Program (August 2004). "Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop" (PDF): 3. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
435. Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2007). "Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan": 12–13. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
436. Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power (October 2002). "Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5" (PDF): 105. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
437. 1 Pakistani Rupee = US$0.01684 (2004-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
438. Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Planning and Development (2004). "Medium Term Development Framework 2005–10. Section 10: Water and Sanitation" (PDF). Islamabad. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
439. "U.S. and World Population Clock". United States Census Bureau.
440. World Meters staff works. "Pakistan Population". http://www.worldometers.info/. World Meters. Retrieved 2 March 2015. External link in |website= (help)
441. "High population growth rate affecting economy'". Daily Times. 12 July 2011. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
442. "CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion" (PDF). International Energy Agency (IEA) Paris. 2011. p. 88. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
443. "World Muslim Population Doubling, Report Projects". Assyrian International News Agency. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
444. "Pakistan set to become most populous Muslim nation". Samaa Tv. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 26 February 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
445. "The Urban Frontier—Karachi". National Public Radio. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
446. "WHO | Pakistan". World Health Organization. 6 October 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
447. Jason Burke (17 August 2008). "Pakistan looks to life without the general". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
448. "Uncommon tongue: Pakistan's confusing move to Urdu". BBC News. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
449. Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S.N. Sridhar (27 March 2008). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9781139465502.
450. "Urdu In Contempt". The Nation. 31 December 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
451. Pakistan Narcotics Control Board 1986, p. 7.
452. "Teaching and Learning in Pakistan: The Role of Language in Education" (PDF). British Council.Org. 2010. pp. 13, 14, 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
453. Ur Rehman, Zia (August 18, 2015). "With a handful of subbers, two newspapers barely keeping Gujarati alive in Karachi".
454. Rafi, Yumna (2015-06-17). "Pakistan hosts second largest refugee population globally". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
455. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "2010 UNHCR country operations profile – Pakistan". UNHCR. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
456. "Future Floods of Refugees" (PDF). Norwegian Refugee Council. April 2008. p. 25. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
457. "Questions and Answers About Refugees & Asylum Seekers". Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved December 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
458. "Five million illegal immigrants residing in Pakistan". January 16, 2012.
459. "Fringe Pakistan: Bengali-speaking Pakistanis demand right to vote". March 10, 2012.
460. Ur Rehman, Zia (Feb 23, 2015). "Identity issue haunts Karachi's Rohingya population".
461. Khan, Naimat (12 June 2015). "The Rohingyas of Karachi".
462. Jaffrey, Shumaila (12 August 2015). "How the Uighurs keep their culture alive in Pakistan".
463. Istvan, Zoltan (13 March 2003). "Refugee Crisis Worsening In Western Kashmir".
464. Ian S. Livingston; Michael O'Hanlon (29 November 2011). "Pakistan Index" (PDF). Brookings population 2010. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
465. Nadia Mushtaq Abbasi (2010). "The Pakistani Diaspora in Europe and Its Impact on Democracy Building in Pakistan" (PDF). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. p. 5. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
466. Service, Tribune News. "India has largest diaspora population in world: UN". http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/india-has-largest-diaspora-population-in-world-un/183731.html. Retrieved 2016-03-03. External link in |website= (help)
467. "Pakistan: Largest cities and towns and statistics of their population". Retrieved 2011-02-10.
468. "Religions in Pakistan". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
469. Curtis, Lisa; Mullick, Haider (4 May 2009). "Reviving Pakistan's Pluralist Traditions to Fight Extremism". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2011
470. a b c "Religions: Islam 95%, other (includes Christian and Hindu, 2% Ahmadiyyah ) 5%". CIA. The World Factbook on Pakistan. 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
471. 1. ^ International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore: "Have Pakistanis Forgotten Their Sufi Traditions?" by Rohan Bedi April 2006
472. Singh, Dr. Y P (2016). Islam in India and Pakistan - A Religious History. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789385505638.
473. "Shia Muslims Population".
474. "Field Listing : Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
475. "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
476. Tracy Miller, ed. (October 2009). "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
477. Nasr, Vali (2007). The Shia revival : how conflicts within Islam will shape the future (Paperback ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393329682.
478. "The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity".
479. "International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Pakistan". US State Department. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
480. "South Asian Media Net". South Asian Free Media Association. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
481. "Can Sufi Islam counter the Taleban?". BBC. 24 February 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
482. "Sunni Leader Killed in Pakistan". Nigeria Times. Nigeria Times. 15 February 2015. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
483. Fatah, Sonya (17 January 2013). "2012 bloodiest year for Shias in Pakistan". Times Internet. The Times of India. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
484. "Bomb kills four at Pakistan Shiite funeral: police". The Times Of India. The Times of India. 17 January 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
485. New Approaches to the Analysis of Jihadism: Online and Offline – Page 38, Rüdiger Lohlker – 2012
486. Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation retrieved 4 September 2013
487. "Population Distribution by Religion, 1998 Census" (PDF).
488. "10 Countries With the Largest Hindu Populations, 2010 and 2050".
489. "Countries With The Largest Hindu Populations".
490. "Pakistan". Ethnologue.
491. Zamindar, Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali (2010). The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231138475.
492. Ahmed, Khaled (22 July 2015). "Defined by exclusion". The Indian Express. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
493. "Pakistan — International Religious Freedom Report 2008". United States Department of State. 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2010. The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 20 percent.
494. Husain, Irfan (27 Aug 2012). "Faith in decline". Dawn, Irfan. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Interestingly, and somewhat intriguingly, 2 per cent of the Pakistanis surveyed see themselves as atheists, up from 1pc in 2005.
495. Ishtiaq Ahmed (12 August 1999). "South Asia". In Ingvar Svanberg, David Westerlund. Islam Outside the Arab World. Routledge. pp. 201–222. ISBN 978-0700711246.
496. Amer Morgahi (2011). "An emerging European Islam: The case of the Minhaj ul Quran in the Netherlands". In Martin van Bruinessen, Stefano Allievi. Producing Islamic Knowledge: Transmission and Dissemination in Western Europe. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-0415355926. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
497. Farooq Soomro. "Sehwan: The undisputed throne of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar". dawn.com. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
498. Produced by Charlotte Buchen. "Sufism Under Attack in Pakistan" (video). The New York Times. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
499. Huma Imtiaz; Charlotte Buchen (6 January 2011). "The Islam That Hard-Liners Hate" (blog). The New York Times. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
500. "Pakistan- Language, Religion, Culture, Customs and Etiquette". Kwint Essential. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
501. Anwar Alam (2008). "Factors and Consequences of Nuclearization of Family at Hayatabad Phase-II, Peshawar" (PDF). Sarhad J. Agric. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Peshawar. 24 (3). Retrieved 21 April 2012.
502. Irfan Husain (17 April 2010). "The rise of Mehran man". Dawn. Pakistan News. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
503. "A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index 2006" (PDF). A.T. Kearney. Nov–Dec 2006. p. 4. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
504. Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity – Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell – Google Books. Books.google.com. 16 August 2010. ISBN 9780754675488. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
505. Michele Langevine Leiby (25 April 2012). "In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world". Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
506. Mariam S. Pal (2000). Women in Pakistan: Country Briefing Paper (PDF). Asian Development Bank. ISBN 971-561-297-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2014.
507. "Pakistan second-worst country in gender equality". The Times of India.
508. "Pakistan: Status of Women & the Women's Movement". Womenshistory.about.com. 28 July 2001. Retrieved 2012-01-24.
509. "Women Education in Pakistan". Pakcitizen.com. 17 December 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-24.
510. Intikhab Hanif. "PA approves bill for protection of women against violence". dawn.com. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
511. "Media in Pakistan" (PDF). International Media Support. July 2009. pp. 14–16, 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
512. "Pakistani media targeted on all sides, says report – The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
513. "Pakistan profile – Media – BBC News". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
514. Naseem Randhava (11 October 2011). "Bollywood films may be banned in Pakistan". Yahoo! News. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
515. "Pakistan to show Bollywood film". BBC News. 23 January 2006. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
516. Shaikh, Naila. "The Evolving World of Pakistani Dramas Builds Stronger Relations With India". http://www.browngirlmagazine.com/. Brown Girl. Retrieved 25 May 2015. External link in |website= (help)
517. Daily Times Monitor, Editorial (25 December 2014). "Pakistani dramas contribute to the evolution of Indian television". Daily Times 2014. Daily Times, Pakistan. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
518. Nadeem F. Paracha (28 March 2013). "Times of the Vital Sign". Dawn News, Nadeem F. Paracha. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
519. Reza Sayah (12 April 2012). "Underground musicians aim to change Pakistan's image". CNN Pakistan. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
520. Adam Nayyar (1988). "Origin and History of the Qawwali" (PDF). University of Toronto. p. 1. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
521. Amit Baruah, R. Padmanabhan (6 September 1997). "The stilled voice". Frontline. Chennai, India. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
522. Owais Tohid (7 June 2005). "Music soothes extremism along troubled Afghan border". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
523. "Between radicalisation and democratisation in an unfolding conflict: Media in Pakistan" (PDF). International Media Support. July 2009. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
524. Clark, David (2006). The Elgar Companion to Development Studies. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 668. ISBN 978-1843764755.
525. "Population explosion: Put an embargo on industrialisation in Karachi - The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. 2013-10-06. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
526. "Pride and the Pakistani Diaspora". Archives.dawn.com. 14 February 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
527. "OP News Discussions Archives". Overseaspakistanis.net. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
528. "Migration and Remittances: Top Countries" (PDF). Siteresources.worldbank.org. 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
529. Alamgir Hashmi (1996). Radhika Mohanram, ed. English postcoloniality: literatures from around the world. Gita Rajan. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 107–112. ISBN 978-0-313-28854-8. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
530. Official website in English Pakistan Academy of Letters Archived 6 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
531. Gilani Kamran (January 2002). "Pakistani Literature – Evolution & trends". the-south-asian magzine. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
532. Huma Imtiaz (26 September 2010). "Granta: The global reach of Pakistani literature". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
533. "The Sufis of India and Pakistan". History of Islam. 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2016-10-12.
534. Annemarie Schimmel (15 December 2004). "Iqbal, Muhammad". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
535. Nadeem Shafique. "Global Apprecaition of Allama Iqbal" (PDF). Bahauddin Zakariya University. Journal of Research, Faculty of Languages and Islamic Studies. pp. 47–49. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
536. Iqbal Academy (26 May 2006). "Allama Iqbal – Biography" (PHP). Retrieved 7 January 2011.
537. Muhammad Zahid Rifat (3 October 2011). "Paying tributes to popular Sufi poets". highbeam.com. The Nation. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
538. Chetan Karnani (2003). L.H. Ajwani. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-81-260-1664-8. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
539. Javed, Kazi. Philosophical Domain of Pakistan (Pakistan Main Phalsapiana Rojhanat) (in Urdu). Karachi: Karachi University Press, 1999.
540. et. al., Richard V. DeSemet SeJ. "Philosophical Activities in Pakistan:1947–1961". Work published by Pakistan Philosophical Congress. Work published by Pakistan Philosophical Congress. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
541. Ahmad, ed. by Naeem (1998). Philosophy in Pakistan. Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. ISBN 1-56518-108-5.
542. Mallick, Ayyaz (7 May 2013). "Exclusive interview with Noam Chomsky on Pakistan elections". Dawn news election cells. Dawn news election cells. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
543. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. "Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pervez Hoodbhoy". http://www.chomsky.info/. PTV archives. Retrieved 21 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
544. Vidja Dehejia. "South Asian Art and Culture". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 10 February 2008.
545. "The Indus Valley And The Genesis Of South Asian Civilization". History World International. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
546. Sachindra Kumar Maity. Cultural Heritage of Ancient India Abhinav Publications, 1983 ISBN 039102809X p 46
547. "UNESCO Advisory Body Evaluation of Takht Bhai" (PDF). International Council on Monuments and Sites. 29 December 1979. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
548. Simon Ross Valentine. 'Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice Hurst Publishers, 2008 ISBN 1850659168 p 63
549. Kamil Khan Mumtaz (1985). Architecture in Pakistan. Concept Media Pte Ltd. pp. 32,51,160. ISBN 9971-84-141-X.
550. Kathleen W. Deady (2001). Countries of the world :Pakistan. Capstone Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 0-7368-0815-9.
551. American Geriatrics Society. Ethnogeriatrics Committee (2006). Doorway thoughts: cross-cultural health care for older adults. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-7637-4355-0.
552. Tarla Dalal (2007). Punjabi Khana. Sanjay & Co. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-89491-54-3.
553. "Sohan Halwa a gift of saints' city". Dawn.com. 16 December 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2014.
554. Bill Mallon; Jeroen Heijmans (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement (4th revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-8108-7249-3.
555. V.V.K.Subburaj (30 August 2004). Basic Facts of General Knowledge. Sura College of Competition. p. 771. ISBN 978-81-7254-234-4. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
556. Saad Khan (15 March 2010). "The Death of Sports in Pakistan". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
557. "Pakistan cricket future in doubt". BBC. 4 March 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
558. "Did the 'fastest man of Asia' run in vain". Dawn.com. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
559. "Greatest player". Squashsite. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
560. Ian Graham (2003). Pakistan. Black Rabbit Books. pp. 20–21. ISBN 1-58340-239-X.
561. K M Shariff (2002). Pakistan almanac 2001–2002. Royal Book Company. pp. 561–574. ISBN 969-407-257-3.
562. Bill Mallon, Jeroen Heijmans (11 August 2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement (4th ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-8108-7249-3. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
563. "Pakistan – Medals Tally by Games". Commonwealth Games Federation. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
564. "Asian Games Medal Count". Asian Games. Olympic Council of Asia. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
565. "Welcome to the Pakistan Basketball Federation". Pakistan Olympic Association. Retrieved 7 August 2014.

Bibliography

• Akbar Ahmed (1997), Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-14966-2
• Stephen Philip Cohen (2006), The Idea of Pakistan, Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 978-0-8157-1503-0
• Anatol Lieven (2012), Pakistan: A Hard Country, PublicAffairs, ISBN 978-1-61039-145-0
• Hafeez Malik (2006), The Encyclopedia of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-597735-6
• Iftikhar Malik (2005), Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia), Greenwood, ISBN 978-0-313-33126-8
• Matthew McCartney (2011), Pakistan – The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-57747-2
• Masood Ashraf Raja (2010), Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2
• Percival Spear (2007), India, Pakistan and the West, Read Books Publishers, ISBN 1-4067-1215-9
• Robert Stimson; Kingsley E. Haynes (1 January 2012), Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis: Addressing Real World Issues, Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN 978-17-8100-796-9
• Pakistan Narcotics Control Board (1986), National survey on drug abuse in Pakistan, The University of Michigan

External links

Government

• Official website
• Pakistan Public Policies & Researches

General information

• "Pakistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Pakistan from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Pakistan at DMOZ
• Pakistan from the BBC News
• Pakistan at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan
• Key Development Forecasts for Pakistan from International Futures
• Geographic data related to Pakistan at OpenStreetMap